Audente
Audente Selôkon Audênti selOkon audEnti | ||
---|---|---|
Pronunciation: | /auˈdɛn.ti/ | |
Spoken in: | Audentior, Raynor Isles, Universalis, Hyperborea | |
Language extinction: | Developed into the Audentic langauges by 1000 ASC | |
Region: | Audentior | |
Total speakers: | 30 million by 230 ASC | |
Langauge family: |
Indo-Apollic | |
Offical status | ||
Offical language in: | Grace Kingdom, Audentior | |
Regulated by: | TBA | |
Langauge codes | ||
MIC 639-1: | au | |
MIC 639-2: | aud | |
MIC 639-3: | aud | |
Grammar | ||
Determiners · Nouns · Pronouns Adjectives · Prepositions · Adverbs Verbs (conjugation · irregular verbs) |
Audente (selôkon Audênti, pronounced [au'den'ti]), is an Indo-Apollic language that was spoken in the Grace Kingdom and the Audentior Independent Nation. It is the direct descendent of the Imperial Audente language, the language of the Audente Empire, having evolved from the local dialects in the Audentior province. It became the lingua franca of the Apollo Sector in the period before the collapse of the Second Audente Empire.
Contents
- 1 History
- 2 Phonology
- 3 Orthography
- 4 Morphology
- 5 Derivational Morphology
- 6 Syntax
- 7 Translations
History
Audente is a member of the South Antyan branch of the Indo-Apollic languages, and as a result, is a descendant of the Imperial Audente language. It was the indigenous dialect of the Audentior province, and its standard was based on the Airosamente dialect. Essentially mutually intelligible with its parent language, it is a matter of historical accident that it became standardized. When the Audente Empire fell and split into the Grace Kingdom and the United Republic, the descendant dialects clamored for recognition, Audente was quickly adopted by the more conservative Grace Kingdom in order to appease the masses, desperate to get away from the ancient imperial regime. As it was a conservative dialect, standardizing the language proved to be particularly simple. One character was added to the Audente alphabet, ñ. Once the Grace Kingdom united with the United Republic, Audente quickly became the lingua franca of Apollonia, much like Imperial Audente beforehand. When the provinces finally splintered off, it remained in its prestige as a lingua franca, although it retained its status as official language only in its indigenous areas. Audente remained a lingua franca well after the collapse of the Second Audente Empire, being the offical language of the Apollo Confederacy and the Fifth Republic of Audentior, whose population consisted of mostly non-native speakers. Long after the language evolved into separate Audente language and other international langauges like Jasonian and Atteran were used, Audente remained the language of science and philosophy. While long dead, it remains today as a prestigious ancient tongue, much like Greek, Latin, or Sanskrit on the planet Earth.
Phonetic changes
Phonetic changes include:
- ng, nk > ŋ (/ŋ/ was already an allophone of /n/ before velar plosives)
- aː, eː > ɛ
- oː > ɔ
- w > β
- Intervocalic ɸ and ɸ before r > β
- Word final β > ɸ
- The loss of distinctive vowel length
- Assimilation of nasals to /l/ and /r/ (ml > ll, mr > rr, etc)
The loss of phonemic vowel length led to the loss of the use of the Imperial Audente letters â, î, and û. The characters ê and ô were kept for the still distinctive former long vowels. ( ɛ ɔ ) In addition, a new character ñ (Probably derived from the characters n + g) was constructed to represent the new phoneme ŋ.
Phonology
Consonants
Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Post- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | (ŋ)1 | ||||
Stop | p b | t̪ d̪ | k g | ||||
Affricate | t͡s d͡z | ||||||
Fricative | f v | θ | s | ʃ ʒ | x | ||
Trill | r | ||||||
Approximant | j | ||||||
Lateral | l |
- [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velars. In addition, velar-nasal consonant clusters neutralize to a geminated /ŋː/, phonemically /gn/.
- The voiceless stops are never aspirated, unlike English.
Allophones
There are a couple of consonant phonemes that have allophones.
- [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velar consonants (/k/, /g/, /x/)
- /θ/ and /x/ have voiced allophones intervocally. ([ð] and [ɣ]) The intervocal voiced allophone of /f/, [v], merged with /v/.
- /x/ is [χ] in boundary with /r/.
- /r/ has the following allophones in complementary distribution:
- [ʁ] after /x/,
- [ʀ] before /x/,
- [ɹ] after a consonant in a syllable onset,
- [r] elsewhere.
Vowels
Monophthongs
Front | Back | |
---|---|---|
Close | i | u |
Close-mid | e | o |
Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ |
Open | a |
The monophthongs are identical to that of Vulgar Latin. /ɛ/ is like the e in bet and /ɔ/ is like the aw in law. There is no phonemic vowel length in Audente. There is no phonemic distinction between long and short vowels. However, vowels in stressed syllables are long. Orthographically, when transliterated in the Latin alphabet, /ɛ/ is spelled ê, and /ɔ/ is spelled ô.
Diphthongs
There are four diphthongs in Audente; all of them are falling diphthongs. There are also two former diphthongs, /ei/ and /ou/, which while are normally monophthongized to /e/ or /ɛ/ and /o/ or /ɔ/, act as diphthongs in some phonological processes, such as sandhi.
i | u | |
---|---|---|
a | ai | au |
e | eu | |
o | oi |
Orthography
Audente has its own alphabet, to be developed later. Audente can be transliterated into the Latin alphabet - it is done so mostly on a one-to-one phoneme-to-grapheme basis, with the exception of the vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/. There are no silent letters.
Phoneme | Grapheme (Audente) |
Grapheme (Latin) |
Grapheme (Alternate Latin) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Consonants | ||||
/p/ | p | p | p | |
/b/ | b | b | b | |
/t/ | t | t | t | |
/d/ | d | d | d | |
/k/ | k | k | k | |
/g/ | g | g | g | |
/t͡s/ | c | c | ts | |
/d͡z/ | z | z | dz | |
/ɸ/ | f | f | f | |
/β/ | v | v | w | |
/θ/ | T | þ | th | |
/s/ | s | s | s | |
/ʃ/ | S | š | sh | |
/ʒ/ | Z | ž | zh | |
/x/ | x | x | kh | |
/m/ | m | m | m | |
/n/ | n | n | n | |
/ŋ/ | N | ñ | ng | |
/l/ | l | l | l | |
/ɹ/ | v | r | r | |
/j/ | j | j | y | |
Vowels | ||||
/i/ | i | i | i | |
/u/ | u | u | u | |
/e/ | e | e | e | |
/ɛ/ | E | ê | ei | |
/ɔ/ | O | ô | ou | |
/o/ | o | o | o | |
/a/ | a | a | a |
Morphology
Audente is a highly inflective language, very much so like latin and greek. There is a fairly free word order, but the default word order is SOV. The order of words is head-first. There is a definite article, but no indefinite article. Questions are formed by creating a statement as usual and placing the particle "cin" (pronounced /t͡sin/) after the verb. The adposition order is time-manner-place. Negatives are done by placing the article "uk" before the verb. Auxilary verbs are placed after the verb.
Sandhi
Audente has sandhi at internal word boundaries for both consonants and vowels.
Vowel Sandhi
Vowel sandhi change to remove hiatuses within the word. This may be done by creating a diphthong (which may have monophthized since Imperial Audente) or adding an approximant ([i] or [v] depending on the vowel) What the mutated sound becomes depends on whether the sound is at the beginning of word, or in the middle or end. The general rule is that front vowels' add a [j], and back vowels (including [a]) add a [v].
Vowel Sandhi - Word Initial
-i | -e | -a | -o | -u | |
i- | ji- | je- | ja- | jo- | ju- |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
e- | e- | e- | eja- | ejo- | eu- |
a- | ai- | ai- | ê- | au- | au- |
o- | oi- | oi- | ova- | ô- | o- |
u- | vi- | ve- | va- | vo- | vu- |
Vowel Sandhi - Word Medial
-i | -e | -a | -o | -u | |
i- | -i- | -ije- | -ija- | -ijo- | -iju- |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
e- | -eji- | -e- | -eja- | -ejo- | -eu- |
a- | -ai- | -ave- | -ê- | -avo- | -au- |
o- | -oi- | -ove- | -ova- | -ô- | -o- |
u- | -uvi- | -uve- | -uva- | -uvo- | -u- |
Vowel Sandhi - Word Final
The only differences in the sandhi compared to the word medial sandhi, is that [o] + [u] become [ô], and [e] + [i] become [ê].
Diphthong Sandhi
Diphthongs (and former diphthongs from Imperial Audente) work slightly differently when it comes across internal morpheme boundries; the semivowel part of the diphthong becomes an approximant; essentially, [i] -> [j] and [u] -> [v].
-i | -e | -a | -o | -u | |
e- (ei) | -eji- | -eje- | -eja- | -ejo- | -eju- |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
eu- | -evi- | -eve- | -eva- | -evo- | -evu- |
ai- | -aji- | -aje- | -aja- | -ajo- | -aju- |
au- | -avi- | -ave- | -ava- | -avo- | -avu- |
oi- | -oji- | -oje- | -oja- | -ojo- | -oju- |
o- (ou) | -ovi- | -ove- | -ova- | -ovo- | -ovu- |
Consonantal Sandhi
While there are other sandhi, there is one basic rule for consonant modification at morpheme boundries, for the plosives and most fricatives:
- When a plosive ([p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]) or fricative ([f] [þ] [x]) appear next to each other, the first assimilates to the characteristic (voice, friciative/plosive) of the second.
- This applies fully to two stops. Fricatives are more complex. This applies fully to [þ] and [x] in the initial position. A root with a hidden [f] (which may be [v] intervocally] applies normally like the other main fricatives.
- This rule does not apply to resonants.
Consonant Sandhi
-p | -t | -k | -b | -d | -g | -f | -þ | -x | -š | -ž | -m | -n | -ñ | -l | -r | -s | -j | -v | |
p- | -pp- | -pt- | -pk- | -bb- | -bd- | -bg- | -ff- | -fþ- | -fx- | -pš- | -bž- | -pm- | -pn- | -pñ- | -pl | -pr | -ps- | -pj- | -pv- |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
t- | -tp- | -tt- | -tk- | -db- | -dd- | -dg- | -þf- | -þþ- | -þx- | -š- | -ž- | -tm- | -tn- | -tñ- | -tl- | -tr | -c- | -c- | -tv- |
k- | -kp- | -kt- | -kk- | -gb- | -gd- | -gg- | -xf- | -xþ- | -xx- | -kš- | -gž- | -km- | -kn- | -kñ- | -kl- | -kr- | -ks- | -kj- | -kv- |
b- | -pp- | -pt- | -pk- | -bb- | -bd- | -bg- | -ff- | -fþ- | -fx- | -pš- | -bž- | -bm- | -bn- | -bñ- | -pl | -pr | -ps- | -bj- | -bv- |
d- | -tp- | -tt- | -tk- | -db- | -dd- | -dg- | -þf- | -þþ- | -þx- | -š- | -ž- | -dm- | -dn- | -dñ- | -tl- | -tr | -z- | -z- | -dv- |
g- | -kp- | -kt- | -kk- | -gb- | -gd- | -gg- | -xf- | -xþ- | -xx- | -kš- | -gž- | -gm- | -gn- | -gñ- | -kl- | -kr- | -ks- | -gj- | -gv- |
f- | -pp- | -pt- | -pk- | -bb- | -bd- | -bg- | -ff- | -fþ- | -fx- | -pš- | -bž- | -vm- | -vn- | -vñ- | -fl | -fr | -ps- | -vj- | -v- |
þ- | -tp- | -tt- | -tk- | -db- | -dd- | -dg- | -þf- | -þþ- | -þx- | -š- | -ž- | -þm- | -þn- | -þñ- | -þl- | -þr | -c- | -c- | -þv- |
x- | -kp- | -kt- | -kk- | -gb- | -gd- | -gg- | -xf- | -xþ- | -xx- | -kš- | -gž- | -xm- | -xn- | -xñ- | -xl- | -xr- | -ks- | -xj- | -xv- |
š- | -šp- | -št- | -šk- | -žb- | -žd- | -žg- | -ff- | -þþ- | -xx- | -š- | -ž- | -šm- | -šn- | -šñ- | -ll- | -rr- | -ss- | -š- | -šv- |
ž- | -šp- | -št- | -šk- | -žb- | -žd- | -žg- | -ff- | -þþ- | -xx- | -š- | -ž- | -žm- | -žn- | -žñ- | -ll- | -rr- | -ss- | -ž- | -žv- |
m- | -mp- | -nt- | -ñ- | -mp- | -nt- | -ñ- | -mp- | -nt- | -ñ- | -š- | -ž- | -mm- | -mm- | -mm- | -ll- | -mbr- | -s- | -mj- | -mv- |
n- | -mp- | -nt- | -ñ- | -mp- | -nt- | -ñ- | -mp- | -nt- | -ñ- | -š- | -ž- | -nn- | -nn- | -nn- | -ll- | -ndr- | -s- | -nj- | -nv- |
ñ- | -mp- | -nt- | -ñ- | -mp- | -nt- | -ñ- | -mp- | -nt- | -ñ- | -š- | -ž- | -ñ- | -ñ- | -ñ- | -ll- | -ñgr- | -s- | -ñj- | -ñv- |
l- | -lp- | -lt- | -lk- | -lb- | -ld- | -lg- | -lf- | -lþ- | -lx- | -ll- | -ll- | -ll- | -ll- | -ll- | -ll- | -ll | -ls- | -ll- | -lv- |
r- | -rp- | -rt- | -rk- | -rb- | -rd- | -rg- | -rf- | -rþ- | -rx- | -rr- | -rr- | -rr- | -rr- | -rr- | -ll- | -ll | -rs- | -rr- | -rv- |
s- | -sp- | -st- | -sk- | -sp- | -z- | -sk- | -sp- | -st- | -sk- | -ss- | -ss- | -:m- | -:n- | -:ñ- | -skl- | -str- | -ss- | -š- | -sv- |
Nominal Declension
Audente nouns inflect into:
- one of six cases: nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, genitive, and vocative.
- one of two grammatical classes, as opposed to grammatical gender: animate and inanimate. Grammatical class can be easily determined by the nominative singular form of a noun; if it ends with -as, -on, -is, or e, the noun is animate; if the noun ends in -am, -on, -i or -u, the noun is inanimate.
- one of three numbers: singular, dual, and plural.
There are eight declensions; four for animate nouns, and four for inanimate nouns.
Animate Noun Declension
suvas, -as water an. |
atos, -os sun an. |
sevis, -is blood an. |
vipose, -e eye an. | |||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |||||||||||||
Nominative | suvas | –as | suvaus | –aus | suvai | –ai | atos | –os | atôs | –ôs | atoi | –oi | sevis | –is | seviju | –iju | sevê | –ê | vipose | –e | viposeus | –eus | viposê | –ê |
Vocative | suve | –e | ato | –o | sevi | –i | viposê | –ê | ||||||||||||||||
Accusative | suvam | –am | suvis | –is | atôn | –ôn | atus | –us | sevi | –i | sevijes | –ijes | viposem | –em | viposis | –is | ||||||||
Genitive | suvar | –ar | suvais | –ais | suvalis | –alis | ator | –or | atois | –ois | atulis | –ulis | sevir | –ir | sevis | –is | sevelis | –elis | viposer | –er | viposês | –ês | viposelis | –elis |
Dative | suvau | –au | suvavas | –avas | suvavan | –avan | atô | –ô | atovas | –ovas | atovan | –ovan | seviju | –eju | sevivas | –ivas | sevivam | –ivam | viposeu | –eu | viposevas | –evas | viposevan | –evan |
Instrumental | suval | –al | atol | –ol | sevil | –il | viposel | –el |
Inanimate Noun Declension
kuþam, -am axe in. |
plêvon, -on feather in. |
koli, -i farm in. |
lamu, -u land in. | |||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |||||||||||||
Nominative | kuþam | –am | kuþalon | –alon | kuþa | –a | plêvon | –on | plêvolon | –olon | plêvôs | –ôs | koli | –i | kolilon | –ilon | kolija | –ija | lamu | –u | lamulon | –ulon | lamus | –us |
Vocative | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Accusative | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Genitive | kuþar | –ar | kuþais | –ais | kuþalis | –alis | plêvor | –or | plêvois | –ois | plêvulis | –ulis | kolir | –ir | kolis | –is | kolelis | –elis | lamur | –ur | lamês | –ês | lamulis | –ulis |
Dative | kuþau | –au | kuþavas | –avas | kuþavan | –avan | plêvô | –ô | plêvovas | –ovas | plêvovan | –ovan | koleju | –eju | kolivas | –ivas | kolivam | –ivam | lamevu | –evu | lamuvas | –uvas | lamuvan | –uvan |
Instrumental | kuþal | –al | plêvol | –ol | kolil | –il | lamul | –ul |
Note that for inanimate nouns, the accusative and vocative are identical to the nominative.
Case Usage
Nominative
The nominative is used for the subject of a sentence, and also for predicate nominals.
Ê varnis mejanê mepal kêtof.
The boy loves to eat apples.
Accusative
The accusative case is used for the direct object.
Ê varnis mejanê mepal kêtof.
The boy loves to eat apples.
In addition, the instrumental case serves as an allative case (motion to) when used with prepositions.
Dative
The dative case is used for the indirect object.
Ê kašas an coxôn eus rakeuxô nezal.
The King gave the cup to the stranger.
In addition, the dative case serves as a locative case (spatial approximation) when used with prepositions.
Genitive
The genitive expresses possession: Ê sorile em kašar "the king's wife"
Instrumental
The instrumental expresses what an action is performed with.
Bêkrakas zeganon eus eto þrindô trigol razal.
Bêkrakas wrote a letter on the paper with ink.
In addition, the instrumental case serves as an ablative case (motion from) when used with prepositions.
The instrumental is also used to create adverbs.
Vocative
The vocative expresses the person (animal, object, etc.) being addressed. The vocative is identical to the nominative for inanimate nouns.
"Bêkrake, nagu nar!"
"Bêkrakas, come here!"
Adjectives and Adverbs
The Article
Audente only has a definite article; there is no indefinite article. The article has an irregular declenation, and must agree with the case, number, and animacy of the noun. The article always precedes its noun; e.g. Ê frengas (the man) The article is the prototypical demonstrative, and many of the demonstratives (as well as the personal pronouns) are derived from it.
Animate | Inanimate | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Dual | Plur. | Sing. | Dual | Plur. | |
Nominative | ê | aus | ên | oi | us | oin |
Accusative | an | aus | ena | on | us | oina |
Genitive | em | êm | im | ô | umo | omi |
Dative | eus | eun | enis | ona | ôs | onus |
Instrumental | as | eun | enis | osi | ôs | onus |
Vocative | el | êli | ak | ul | uli | uk |
Pronouns and Demonstratives
Personal Pronouns
First Person | Second Person | Third Person | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Animate | Inanimate | |||||||||||
Sing. | Dual | Plur. | Sing. | Dual | Plur. | Sing. | Dual | Plur. | Sing. | Dual | Plur. | |
Nominative | tê | taus | noi | kê | kaus | doi | pê | paus | zên | poi | pus | zoin |
Accusative | tan | taus | nus | kan | kaus | dus | pan | paus | zena | pon | pus | zoina |
Genitive | tem | têm | nulos | kem | kêm | dulos | pem | pêm | zim | pô | pumo | zomi |
Dative | teus | teun | novan | keus | keun | dovan | peus | peun | zenis | pona | pôs | zonus |
Instrumental | tas | teun | novan | kas | keun | dovan | pas | peun | zenis | posi | pôs | zonus |
Demonstratives
There are two demonstratives, proximal (this) and distal (that).
Proximal Demonstrative
Animate | Inanimate | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Dual | Plur. | Sing. | Dual | Plur. | |
Nominative | šê | šaus | šên | šoi | šus | šoin |
Accusative | šan | šaus | šena | šon | šus | šoina |
Genitive | šem | šêm | šim | šô | šumo | šomi |
Dative | šeus | šeun | šenis | šona | šôs | šonus |
Instrumental | šas | šeun | šenis | šosi | šôs | šonus |
Distal Demonstrative
Animate | Inanimate | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Dual | Plur. | Sing. | Dual | Plur. | |
Nominative | žê | žaus | žên | žoi | žus | žoin |
Accusative | žan | žaus | žena | žon | žus | žoina |
Genitive | žem | žêm | žim | žô | žumo | žomi |
Dative | žeus | žeun | ženis | žona | žôs | žonus |
Instrumental | žas | žeun | ženis | žosi | žôs | žonus |
Interrogative/RelativeIndefinite Pronoun
These pronouns are related. The indefinite pronoun (someone, anyone) is derived from the relative pronoun (who?, what?) by the addition of a clitic, -te, and the interrogative pronoun (who? what?) uses the clitic -ci.
Relative Pronoun (who, what)
Animate | Inanimate | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Dual | Plur. | Sing. | Dual | Plur. | |
Nominative | xê | xaus | xên | xoi | xus | xoin |
Accusative | xan | xaus | xena | xon | xus | xoina |
Genitive | xem | xêm | xim | xô | xumo | xomi |
Dative | xeus | xeun | xenis | xona | xôs | xonus |
Instrumental | xas | xeun | xenis | xosi | xôs | xonus |
Interrogative Pronoun (who?, what?)
Animate | Inanimate | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Dual | Plur. | Sing. | Dual | Plur. | |
Nominative | xêci | xaussi | xêneci | xoici | xussi | xoissi |
Accusative | xassi | xaussi | xenaci | xossi | xussi | xoinaci |
Genitive | xessi | xêssi | xissi | xôci | xumoci | xomici |
Dative | xeussi | xeuneci | xenissi | xonaci | xôssi | xonussi |
Instrumental | xassi | xeuneci | xenissi | xosici | xôssi | xonussi |
Indefinite Pronoun (someone, anyone)
Animate | Inanimate | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Dual | Plur. | Sing. | Dual | Plur. | |
Nominative | xête | xauste | xênte | xoite | xuste | xointe |
Accusative | xante | xauste | xenate | xonte | xuste | xoinate |
Genitive | xente | xênte | xinte | xôte | xumote | xomite |
Dative | xeuste | xeunte | xeniste | xonate | xôste | xonuste |
Instrumental | xaste | xeunte | xeniste | xosite | xôste | xonuste |
??? Pronoun
The demonstrative is used for something but I don't know what.
Animate | Inanimate | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Dual | Plur. | Sing. | Dual | Plur. | |
Nominative | þê | þaus | þên | þoi | þus | þoin |
Accusative | þan | þaus | þena | þon | þus | þoina |
Genitive | þem | þêm | þim | þô | þumo | þomi |
Dative | þeus | þeun | þenis | þona | þôs | þonus |
Instrumental | þas | þeun | þenis | þosi | þôs | þonus |
Other pronouns and determiners
Prepositions
Audente has quite a few prepositions; however, a good many of them have multiple meanings. Prepositions govern the accusative, dative, and instrumental cases of the noun of the prepositional phrase. Some prepositions govern only a single case, but others govern can govern two or three; the preposition has different meanings depending on the case. The dative case signifies spacial approximation, the instrumental case signifies movement from or the marking the source, and the accusative case signifies movement to or marking the goal. There are some redundancies in the prepositions.
Dative Only Prepositions | |||
---|---|---|---|
es | at (same location as, temporal) | ||
salu | outside of, exterior to | ||
Instrumental Only | |||
ani | instead of, rather than | ||
aši | from, out of, away from | ||
cun | with (accompanied by) | ||
diþa | during | ||
maf | within | ||
mera | across | ||
nes | before, in front of, ahead of (spatially) | ||
teli | because of, due to | ||
piso | behind, in back of, to the rear of | ||
þu | before, prior to, earlier than | ||
zema | without, lacking | ||
Accusative Only | |||
al | to | ||
ben | for, in favor of, how long | ||
nan | towards, at (moving toward) | ||
sen | after (later than; in the future of) | ||
teþa | like, similar to | ||
Instrumental-Accusative | |||
Preposition | Instrumental | Accusative | |
pano | over, above | beyond, farther than, exceeding | |
daki | under (locative), against | under (motion toward) | |
dama | through (spacial/means) | through (owing to cause/person) | |
All Three Cases | |||
Preposition | Dative | Instrumental | Accusative |
dan | near, in addition to | in the name of, from | toward, looking to, purpose |
er | in (located inside of) | in from | into |
eto | on, upon (general relations) | off, pertaining to | onto, over |
xara | around (locative) | about, concerning | around (motion, actions) |
Verbal Morphology
Audente Verbs inflect into:
- one of four moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and optative.
- one of three voices: active, middle, and passive.
- one of three persons: first, singular, and third.
- one of two numbers: singular and plural.
- one of three aspects: perfect, perfective, and imperfective.
- one of seven tenses: present, perfect, aorist, imperfect, pluperfect, future, and future perfect.
- There are also two non-finite forms: infinitive and participle, in present, perfect, aorist, and future forms.
Basics of Conjugation and Sandhi
The verb is, for the most part, very regular, with one genuine conjugation. The general pattern of the Audente verb is as follows:
- augment + stem + affix + suffix
The augment primarily functions as a voice modifier, modifying the verb to either the middle voice or passive voice. The suffix of the verb is specific to the person, number, and mood of the verb. The affix, usually a single consonant but sometimes more, is specific to the tense and aspect of the verb.
The irregularity of the verb primarily is in the coda of the stem, and depends on the coda of the stem and the first letter of the affix used. The consonant clusters formed from the stem final and affix initial can change through sandhi, the results of which are shown in the following table.
Affix Initial | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Stem Final | - | s- | r- | n- |
-p | -p(p)-1 | -ps- | -pr- | -pn- |
-t | -t(t)-1 | -c- | -tr- | -tn- |
-k | -k(k)-1 | -ks- | -kr- | -kn- |
-b | -b- | -ps- | -pr- | -bn- |
-d | -d- | -z- | -tr- | -dn- |
-g | -g- | -ks- | -kr- | -gn- |
-f2 | -v- | -ps- | -vr- | -vn- |
-þ | -þ- | -c- | -þr- | -þn- |
-x | -x- | -ks- | -xr- | -xn- |
-l | -l- | -ls- | -lr- | -ll- |
-r | -r- | -rs- | -rr- | -rn- |
-s | -r-, -s-3 | -ss- | -str- | -sn- |
-j | -j- | -(i)s-4 | -(i)r-4 | -(i)n-4 |
-v5 | -j- | -(u)s-6 | -(u)r-6 | -(u)n-6 |
-m | -m- | -ːs-6 | -mbr- | -mm- |
-n | -n- | -ːs-6 | -ndr- | -nn- |
- Consonant is geminated if previous vowel is historically short. (i.e. /a/, /e/, /o/, and sometimes /i/ or /u/) This can be shown in the present infinitive form of the verb.
- Historical *-f. this final stem consonant is never the value of /ɸ/ due to sound changes. It is put here only to differentiate it from *-v, the sandhi of which is different.
- stem becomes -r- when it is between two vowels.
- An i is added to create a diphthong with the preceding vowel if it is possible in these sandhi. That is, a + j = ai, o + j = oi, ô + j = ôi. Also, e + j = ê. Else, the coda is lost.
- Historical *-v, which was /w/ in Imperial Audente. Differs from historical /ɸ/ in the sandhi.
- An u is added to create a diphthong with the preceding vowel if it is possible in these sandhi. That is, a + v = au, e + v = eu, ê + v = êu. Also, o + v = ô. Else, the coda is lost.
- If there is a preceding vowel, it is historically lengthened. In Audente, this means that a or e is changed to ê, and o is changed to ô. Else, there is no change.
Conjugation tables
Copula
Derivational Morphology
Compound Words
Compound words are, for the most part left-branching. That is, the modifier comes before the head. The stem of the modifier is used as the affix to the compound word, while the suffix of the nominal In noun-noun and verb-noun compounds, the suffix of the created noun is that of its nominal head. For example, capon (bow) + vakos (person) = capvakos (archer, bowman).
Compounds, on the other hand, are right-branching, with the modifier coming after the nominal head: For example, vuvaros sôberos (northern wind), mejanis renêdi (red apple)
Nominalizers
Adjectivizers
Verbalizers
Syntax
Word order
Case usage
Noun phrases
Numbers
Comparative expressions
Prepositions
Tense usage
Infinitive
Tenses
Present Tense
The present tense can be used to express an action at the present, a state of being, or a habitual action at the present. It has an imperfective aspect.
Farsal.
It rains. / It is raining.
Perfect Tense
The perfect tense is a present tense with a perfect aspect. It is used to express action that has been completed with respect to the present.
Ê frengas an kašam malral.
The man has seen the king.
Aorist Tense
In the indicative mood, the aorist tense refers to a past action, in a general way or as a completed event, like the preterite in English. It may also be used to express a general statement in the present. In other moods - the subjunctive, optative, and imperative, the infinitive, and largely the participle, the aorist is purely aspectual. In these forms, it has no temporal meaning, and acts purely as an alternative to the other aspects; its aspect is perfective.
Ê varnis an jet xesau strôlsal.
The boy walked on the floor.
Imperfect Tense
Pluperfect Tense
Future Tense
Future Perfect Tense
Moods
Indicative
The indicative mood is the most common mood. It is used for factual statements and positive beliefs.
General truths of the word, such as philosophical truths, are expressed in a "gnomic tense" in the aorist indicative: Suvas zelli seral. "Water is wet."
Imperative
The imperative mood is used to express direct commands or requests. It is also used to express a prohibition, permission or any other kind of exhortation.
Subjunctive
The subjunctive mood is used to express certain counterfactual statements. It can only be expressed in the present, perfect, and aorist tense; these tenses lack a time component. Among the subjunctive's uses are exhortations, commands, expressions of purpose, and conditions.
The three most common independent uses of the subjunctive are:
- Hortatory: The first person (usually plural) of the subjunctive is used in exhortations.
"Let us see!"
"Let us not do those things!"
- Prohibitive: A negative command is expressed in the aorist subjunctive with ku:
"Do not do that!"
- 'Deliberative: The first person of the subjunctive is used in questions in which a person asks himself what he is to do. The negative is ku.
The subjunctive is also used heavily in conditions and relative conditions, shown later on.
Future Vivid: When a hypothetical future case is stated distinctly and vividly (that is, as likely to occur) the subjunctive is used with ἐάν (also spelled ἄν or ἤν) in the protasis, the conditional (or if) clause, and the future indicative (or its equivalent) is used in the apodosis, the conclusion (or then) clause. The negative in the protasis is μή, in the apodosis, οὐ.
Present General: This type refers to a customary or repeated action or to a general truth. The time is indefinite.
Optative
The Optative mood is used to express wishes or hopes, and is closely related to the subjunctive mood. It is found in the present, future, future perfect, aorist, and perfect tenses.
Uses of the optative in independent clauses include:
- Potential: Expresses a future possibility. This use corresponds to the English potential forms using auxilaries such as may, can, 'might, could, would.
Nagôi sas. "He may/might/could/wight come."
- Wish: Or just the "Optative optative". A future wish is expressed by the optative; þira, if only, would that may be used with this construction. The negative is, as usual, ku.
Nagôi. / Þira nagôi. "May he come!" Ku nagôi. / Þira ku nagôi. "May he not come!"
The optative is also used in conditions:
- Past General: For a customary or repeated action, or for a general truth in past time, use the optative in the protasis and (usually) the imperfect indicative in the apodosis.
Þi nagôi duxa, šês vredejalla. If (ever) anyone came, we (always) did/used to do/would do these things.
- Future Less Vivid Conditions: When the future condition is stated less distinctly (that is, as less likely to occur) the optative is used in both clauses. Compare this with the English should-would condition: If I should go (or if I went, were to go), I would do these things.
Protatis: þi + Optative
Apodisis: Optative + sas
Þi naksôi, šês sas vrezôi. "If I should come, I would do these things."
Voices
Audente, unlike English, has three voices; the Active, Middle, and Passive. Voices are morphological, not synthetic.
Middle Voice
The middle voice is a voice in which the subject has characteristics of both the agent and the patient. It can be used reflexively, denoting that the subject acts on or for itself. To form the middle voice, add the augment zo- to the front of the verb.
Ê varnis zokêzal.
The boy washed himself.
Passive Voice
To form the passive voice, add the augment a- to the front of the verb. If the verb stem begins with a vowel, the augment modifies the vowel to ê if the stem vowel is a or e, or transformed into a diphthong ai- or au if the stem vowel is i-, o-', or u., respectively.
Passive voice construction, focusing on the object varn- (boy) as opposed to the subject duš- (shower):
Ê varnis as dušel akêzal.
The boy was washed by the shower.
Versus its active voice construction, focusing on the subject:
Ê duše an varni kêzal.
The shower washed the boy.
Subordinate clauses
Clitics
Negatives
The normal way to form the negative is to use the particle ku before the verb, or before the element particularly to be negated.
Ê alêxas an vanôn ku sol. The horse is not in the lake.
Questions
To form a yes-no question, use the particle cin after the verb, or to the element to be questioned:
Ê kašas an soranam reuþol cin? Does the King love the woman?
Ê kašas an soranam cin reuþol? Is it the woman the King loves?
Ê kašas cin an soranam reuþol? Is it the King who loves the woman?
There are also interrogative pronouns, used in a similar fashion to yes/no particle:
Ma an rada edemol vôrdel šam?
How was he able to read the books?
(???) The reflexive pronouns are placed at the end of a clause when used interrogatively:
Barekis tan mallageril kune?
Who has seen my brother?
Translations
The North Wind and the Sun
Ê Vuvaras sôberos vi Ê Atos
Ê Vuvaras sôberos vi ê Atos vikarejalla xis musit seral, eskros samasiveu tileksal xô panovori taru nakral.
Nis sêdolsalla še ê xas xis lapos zakalsal xô visaxôs em samasiver on panovori asuksaduval, nis ronatnal musik.
Þran ê Vuvaras sôberos vuksal raditit jezal, sel ê mažavi pês vuksal, tadap an samasivem peñ panovori pucal sañ bê;
vi telikol ê Vuvaras sôberos on dumalon saržêsal. Þran ê Atos divacal šê taril, vi an samasivem peñ panovori suksazal žattil.
Ner ê Vuvaras sôberos arikinsal pratiþ še ê Atos seral musik.
Word-by-word translation
Ê Vuvaras sôberos | vi | ê Atos | vikarejalla | xis | musit | seral, | eskros | samasiveu | tileksal | xô | panovori taru | nakral. |
the.3S.nom wind.nom north.nom.a | and | the.3S.nom sun.nom | dispute.3P.ipr | which.nom | strong.cmp | be.cmp , | when | traveler.dat | wrap.aor | in | cloak.acc warm.acc.i | come.per . |
The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. |
---|
Nis | sêdolsalla | še | ê xas | xis | lapos | zakalsal | xô | visaxôs | em samasiver | on panovori | asuksaduval, | nis | ronatnal | musik. |
pronoun.3P.nom.a | agree.aor | that.con | the.1S.nom one.1S.nom | who.adj.nom | first.nom | succeed.3S.aor | in | make.pp | the.3S.gen traveler.gen | the.3S.acc cloak.acc | remove.3S.plu.pas , | pronoun.3P.a | consider.3S.fut | strong.sup. |
They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. |
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Þran | ê Vuvaras sôberos | vuksal | raditit | jezal, | sel | ê mažavi | pês | vuksal, | tadap | an samasivem | peñ panovori | pucal | sañ | bê; |
then | the.nom wind.nom north.nom.a | blow.3S.aor | hard.comp | can.3S.aor, | but | the.3S.nom more.nom | pronoun.3S.nom.a | blow.3S.aor , | close.pos | the.3S.acc traveler.acc | pronounn.3P.gen.a cloak.acc | fold.3S.aor | around | pronoun.3P.acc.a ; |
Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; |
---|
vi | telikol | ê Vuvaras sôberos | on dumalon | saržêsal. | Þran | ê Atos | divacal šê | taril, | vi | an samasivem | peñ panovori | suksazal | žattil. | |
and | finally | the.nom wind.nom north.nom.a | the.acc attempt.acc | surrender.3S.aor . | then | the.nom sun.nom | shine.aor out | warmly, | and | the.3S.acc traveler.acc | pronoun.3P.gen.a cloak.acc | remove.3S.aor | immediately . | |
and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. |
---|
Ner | ê Vuvaras sôberos | arikinsal | pratiþ | še | ê Atos | seral | musik. | |||||||
thus | the.nom wind.nom north.nom.a | oblige.3S.aor.pas | confess.inf.aor | that.con | the.3S.nom sun.nom | the.3S.nom be.3S.aor | strong.sup . | |||||||
And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two. |
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Source
- This article was coipied from Soloralwiki.