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Deprecated: ApiModuleManager::__construct(): Implicitly marking parameter $objectFactory as nullable is deprecated, the explicit nullable type must be used instead in /home/shireroth/public_html/wiki/includes/api/ApiModuleManager.php on line 62 https://shireroth.org/wiki/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=TauShireWiki - User contributions [en]2026-10-22T18:52:05ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.39.10https://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10461Shirerothian language2010-12-29T13:20:35Z<p>Tau: /* Syntax */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| x<br />
| -<br />
| Used in digraphs only<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The letters ''æ'', ''ç'', ''ð'', ''ö'', and ''þ'' can be written as ''ae'', ''cx'', ''dx'', ''oe'', and ''tx'', respectively, when technical limitations prevent the input of these characters.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
/l/ is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
/ɬ/ is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
/p/, /t/, and /k/ are not aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxifi "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====To be====<br />
<br />
Not unexpectedly, the verb "to be" is highly irregular.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | verunur "to be"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| vem || jerne<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| jert || jertu<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| ver || sirust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions ''að'' ("of" or "from") and ''zxa'' ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Semantics and Pragmatics==<br />
<br />
==Sociolinguistic topics==<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| en, ente<br />
| and<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| kunur<br />
| to see<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| verunur<br />
| to be<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10460Shirerothian language2010-12-29T11:19:47Z<p>Tau: /* Consonants */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| x<br />
| -<br />
| Used in digraphs only<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The letters ''æ'', ''ç'', ''ð'', ''ö'', and ''þ'' can be written as ''ae'', ''cx'', ''dx'', ''oe'', and ''tx'', respectively, when technical limitations prevent the input of these characters.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
/l/ is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
/ɬ/ is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
/ŋ/ can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
/p/, /t/, and /k/ are not aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxifi "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====To be====<br />
<br />
Not unexpectedly, the verb "to be" is highly irregular.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | verunur "to be"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| vem || jerne<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| jert || jertu<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| ver || sirust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions ''að'' ("of" or "from") and ''zxa'' ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| en, ente<br />
| and<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| kunur<br />
| to see<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| verunur<br />
| to be<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10459Shirerothian language2010-12-29T11:17:06Z<p>Tau: /* Orthography */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| x<br />
| -<br />
| Used in digraphs only<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The letters ''æ'', ''ç'', ''ð'', ''ö'', and ''þ'' can be written as ''ae'', ''cx'', ''dx'', ''oe'', and ''tx'', respectively, when technical limitations prevent the input of these characters.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxifi "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====To be====<br />
<br />
Not unexpectedly, the verb "to be" is highly irregular.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | verunur "to be"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| vem || jerne<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| jert || jertu<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| ver || sirust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions ''að'' ("of" or "from") and ''zxa'' ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| en, ente<br />
| and<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| kunur<br />
| to see<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| verunur<br />
| to be<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10458Shirerothian language2010-12-29T11:16:02Z<p>Tau: /* Orthography */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| x<br />
| -<br />
| Used in digraphs only<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The letters æ, ç, ð, ö, and þ can be written as ae, cx, dx, oe, and tx, respectively, when technical limitations prevent the input of these characters.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxifi "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====To be====<br />
<br />
Not unexpectedly, the verb "to be" is highly irregular.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | verunur "to be"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| vem || jerne<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| jert || jertu<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| ver || sirust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions ''að'' ("of" or "from") and ''zxa'' ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| en, ente<br />
| and<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| kunur<br />
| to see<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| verunur<br />
| to be<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10457Shirerothian language2010-12-28T15:39:35Z<p>Tau: /* Third person */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxifi "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====To be====<br />
<br />
Not unexpectedly, the verb "to be" is highly irregular.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | verunur "to be"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| vem || jerne<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| jert || jertu<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| ver || sirust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions ''að'' ("of" or "from") and ''zxa'' ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| en, ente<br />
| and<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| kunur<br />
| to see<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| verunur<br />
| to be<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10456Shirerothian language2010-12-28T15:34:11Z<p>Tau: /* Language contact with Eldurian */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxifi "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====To be====<br />
<br />
Not unexpectedly, the verb "to be" is highly irregular.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | verunur "to be"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| vem || jerne<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| jert || jertu<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| ver || sirust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions ''að'' ("of" or "from") and ''zxa'' ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| en, ente<br />
| and<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| kunur<br />
| to see<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| verunur<br />
| to be<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10455Shirerothian language2010-12-28T15:30:24Z<p>Tau: /* Lexicon */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxifi "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====To be====<br />
<br />
Not unexpectedly, the verb "to be" is highly irregular.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | verunur "to be"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| vem || jerne<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| jert || jertu<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| ver || sirust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions ''að'' ("of" or "from") and ''zxa'' ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| en, ente<br />
| and<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| kunur<br />
| to see<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| verunur<br />
| to be<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10454Shirerothian language2010-12-28T15:10:26Z<p>Tau: /* Passive voice */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxifi "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====To be====<br />
<br />
Not unexpectedly, the verb "to be" is highly irregular.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | verunur "to be"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| vem || jerne<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| jert || jertu<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| ver || sirust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions ''að'' ("of" or "from") and ''zxa'' ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| en, ente<br />
| and<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10453Shirerothian language2010-12-28T15:08:38Z<p>Tau: /* Lexicon */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxif "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====To be====<br />
<br />
Not unexpectedly, the verb "to be" is highly irregular.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | verunur "to be"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| vem || jerne<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| jert || jertu<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| ver || sirust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions ''að'' ("of" or "from") and ''zxa'' ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| en, ente<br />
| and<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10452Shirerothian language2010-12-28T15:07:54Z<p>Tau: /* Prepositions */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxif "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====To be====<br />
<br />
Not unexpectedly, the verb "to be" is highly irregular.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | verunur "to be"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| vem || jerne<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| jert || jertu<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| ver || sirust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions ''að'' ("of" or "from") and ''zxa'' ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10451Shirerothian language2010-12-28T14:19:33Z<p>Tau: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxif "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====To be====<br />
<br />
Not unexpectedly, the verb "to be" is highly irregular.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | verunur "to be"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| vem || jerne<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| jert || jertu<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| ver || sirust<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions að ("of" or "from") and zxa ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10450Shirerothian language2010-12-28T14:01:34Z<p>Tau: /* Lexicon */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxif "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions að ("of" or "from") and zxa ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxa<br />
| in<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10449Shirerothian language2010-12-28T13:57:52Z<p>Tau: /* Lexicon */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxif "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions að ("of" or "from") and zxa ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| takunar<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| vozxanur<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10448Shirerothian language2010-12-28T13:57:14Z<p>Tau: /* Lexicon */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxif "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions að ("of" or "from") and zxa ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| taku<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to, towards<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| vozx<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10447Shirerothian language2010-12-28T13:56:20Z<p>Tau: /* Lexicon */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxif "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions að ("of" or "from") and zxa ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| lesunar<br />
| to read<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| ma<br />
| but<br />
| conj.<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| taku<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| utan<br />
| outside of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| vozx<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxif<br />
| wolf<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| yre<br />
| out of<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10446Shirerothian language2010-12-28T13:14:24Z<p>Tau: /* Passive voice */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu vi wxif "the sheep was eaten by a wolf"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions að ("of" or "from") and zxa ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| taku<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| vozx<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10445Shirerothian language2010-12-28T13:02:45Z<p>Tau: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs in Shirerothian have the following properties:<br />
<br />
* Three persons: First, second, third<br />
* Two numbers: Singular, plural<br />
* Two aspects: Perfective (finished), imperfective (unfinished)<br />
* Six tenses: Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect<br />
* Three finite moods: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative<br />
* Two voices: Active, passive<br />
* Three non-finite forms: Infinitive, gerund, participle<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two verb conjugations. The first conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nar, while the second conjugation is characterized by the infinitive ending -nur.<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a pro-drop language. In other words, the pronoun is optional but can be used for emphasis. When the pronoun is included with the verb, it follows the verb:<br />
<br />
* takun æj sa jatun "I am eating the sheep"<br />
<br />
====Overview====<br />
<br />
=====Passive voice=====<br />
<br />
The passive voice is formed by adding the prefix f(e)- to the verb:<br />
<br />
* fetakyler sa jatu "the sheep was eaten"<br />
<br />
====Table of verb affixes====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Type<br />
! Affix<br />
|-<br />
| Past tense || -le-<br />
|-<br />
| Future tense || -þura-<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive mood || -ti-<br />
|-<br />
| Passive voice || f(e)-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Present tense====<br />
<br />
=====Indicative mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takun || '''-n''' || takyne || '''-ne''' || vozxam || '''-m''' || vozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takuz || '''-z''' || takyre || '''-re''' || vozxaz || '''-z''' || vozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takur || '''-r''' || takut || '''-t''' || vozxa || '''-''' || vozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Indicative Passive Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakun || '''-n''' || fetakyne || '''-ne''' || fevozxam || '''-m''' || fevozxane || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakuz || '''-z''' || fetakyre || '''-re''' || fevozxaz || '''-z''' || fevozxare || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakur || '''-r''' || fetakut || '''-t''' || fevozxa || '''-''' || fevozxast || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Subjunctive mood=====<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| takytin || '''-n''' || takytine || '''-ne''' || vozxatim || '''-m''' || vozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| takytiz || '''-z''' || takytire || '''-re''' || vozxatiz || '''-z''' || vozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| takytir || '''-r''' || takytit || '''-t''' || vozxati || '''-''' || vozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | Subjunctive Active Present<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="4" | First Conjugation <br /> takunar "to eat"<br />
! colspan="4" | Second Conjugation <br /> vozxanur, "to run"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
! colspan="2" | Singular<br />
! colspan="2" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! First Person<br />
| fetakytin || '''-n''' || fetakytine || '''-ne''' || fevozxatim || '''-m''' || fevozxatine || '''-ne'''<br />
|-<br />
! Second Person<br />
| fetakytiz || '''-z''' || fetakytire || '''-re''' || fevozxatiz || '''-z''' || fevozxatire || '''-re'''<br />
|-<br />
! Third Person<br />
| fetakytir || '''-r''' || fetakytit || '''-t''' || fevozxati || '''-''' || fevozxatist || '''-st'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Past tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions að ("of" or "from") and zxa ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| taku<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| vozx<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Template:Audente&diff=10444Template:Audente2010-12-28T11:39:32Z<p>Tau: Color change</p>
<hr />
<div>{| class="infobox" style="width:22em; margin-top:0.75em; background:#f4f4f4; text-align:left; font-size:90%; float:right; border: 1px solid darkgray;" cellpadding="2";<br />
! colspan="3" bgcolor="lightblue" style="text-align: center; font-size:120%;" |[[Audente language|Audente]]<br>Selôkon Audênti<br><font face="Audente">selOkon audEnti</font><br />
|-<br />
| valign="top"|Pronunciation:<br />
| /auˈdɛn.ti/<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top"|Spoken in:<br />
| Audentior, Raynor Isles, Universalis, Hyperborea<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top"|Language extinction:<br />
| Developed into the [[Audentic langauges]] by 1000 ASC<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top"|Region:<br />
| Audentior<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top"|Total speakers:<br />
| 30 million by 230 ASC<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top"|Langauge family:<br><br />
|<br />
[[Indo-Apollic languages|Indo-Apollic]]<br><br />
&nbsp;[[Antyan languages|Antyan]]<br><br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;[[South Antyan languages|South Antyan]]<br><br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Audentic languages|Audentic]]<br><br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Audente'''<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" bgcolor="lightblue" style="text-align: center;"|Offical status<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top"|Offical language in:<br />
| [[Grace Kingdom]], [[Audentior]]<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top"|Regulated by:<br />
| TBA<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" bgcolor="lightblue" style="text-align: center;"|Langauge codes<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top"|MIC 639-1:<br />
| au<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top"|MIC 639-2:<br />
| aud<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top"|MIC 639-3:<br />
| aud<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" bgcolor="lightblue" style="text-align: center;"| &nbsp; [[Audente language#Grammar|Grammar]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | [[Audente determiners|Determiners]] · [[Audente nouns|Nouns]] · [[Audente pronouns|Pronouns]]<br />[[Audente adjectives|Adjectives]] · [[Audente prepositions|Prepositions]] · [[Audente adverbs|Adverbs]]<br />[[Audente verbs|Verbs]] ([[Audente conjugation|conjugation]] · [[Audente irregular verbs|irregular verbs]])<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Audente language]]<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
[[Category:Language templates]]<br />
</noinclude></div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10443Shirerothian language2010-12-28T11:37:12Z<p>Tau: /* Determiners */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''seo, seo, sa'' <br /> the<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo || seo || sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene || sene || sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="3" | ''uk, uk, uko'' <br /> one<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk || uk || uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka || uk || ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes || ykes || ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki || yki || yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions að ("of" or "from") and zxa ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| taku<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| vozx<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang&diff=10442User:Con quesa/shireroth conlang2010-12-28T11:13:28Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Conlangs]]<br />
<br />
This is a public scratch pad for the Shireroth language, or ''Præta Sxiroþes''. The official version thereof, once created and decided upon, will appear on another page in this wiki.<br />
<br />
In this grammar sketch, ''italic'' text is used to indicate romanized text in Shireroth (or sometimes to indicate English text used to illustrate a linguistic feature of Shireroth). '''Bold''' text is used to indicate linguistic terms that may need further definition.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
===Consonant Inventory===<br />
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
!<br />
!Labial<br />
!Dental<br />
!Alveolar<br />
!Postalveolar/<br>Palatal consonant<br />
!Velar<br />
!Glottal<br />
|-align=center<br />
!Nasal<br />
|'''m''' /m/<br />
|<br />
|'''n''' /n/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-align=center<br />
!Plosive<br />
|'''p''' /p/, '''b''' /b/<br />
|<br />
|'''t''' /t/, '''d''' /d/<br />
|'''c''' /tʃ/, '''ç''' /dʒ/<br />
|'''k''' /k/, '''ɡ''' /g/<br />
|<br />
|-align=center<br />
!Fricative<br />
|'''f''' /f/, '''v''' /v/<br />
|'''þ''' /θ/, '''ð''' /ð/<br />
|'''s''' /s/, '''z''' /z/<br />
|'''sx''' /ʃ/, '''zx''' /ʒ/<br />
|'''kx''' /x/<br />
|'''h''' /h/<br />
|-align=center<br />
!Approximant<br />
|'''xw''' /ʍ/, '''w''' /w/<br />
|<br />
|'''l''' /l/<br />
|'''j''' /j/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-align=center<br />
!Flap<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''r''' /ɾ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Some consonants are written as digraphs, i.e. two separate letters treated as a single unit and used to indicate one sound. The specific letters used have been chosen such that there is no potential for ambiguity between two letters meant to indicate a single sound and two letters representing two separate sounds.<br />
<br />
Whenever two consonants appear in a single cell, the one on the left is voiceless (pronounced without vibration of the vocal cords), and the one on the right is voiced (pronounced with vibration of the vocal cords). In English, voicing is the difference between the initial consonants in ''fine'' (voiceless) and ''vine'' (voiced), or between the final sounds in house used as a noun, and house used as a verb.<br />
<br />
'''p b t d k''' and '''g''' are all sounds found in English, and an English speaker should have no problem dealing with the equivalent sounds found in Shireroth. '''f v s z''' and '''h''' are also sounds common to both Shireroth and English. Note that in written English voiced sounds are sometimes written the same way as their equivalent voiced sounds - we can see this in house used above, where the final s may represent either a /s/ sound or a /z/ sound. This does not happen in Shireroth - a '''s''' always represents an /s/, and a '''z''' always represenents a /z/ (we would expect a Shireroth speaker, therefore, to write that English word as "house" and "houze", until he was taught the complexities of English's writing system).<br />
<br />
'''þ''' and '''ð''' represent the voiceless and voiced versions of the fricative sound normally written in English as th, as in thin. The initial sound of "thin", in fact, is a voiceless '''th''', and would be written in Shireroth as '''þin'''. In English, the voiced version of that sound also written with a '''th''', as in the pronoun "them". Shireroth, unlike English, writes these two sounds differently; if "them" were a Shireroth word, it would be written '''ðem'''.<br />
<br />
'''kx''' represents /x/, a fricative sound that is not found in English, but is found in German (as the ach-laut, the sound written "ch" in words like "acht".<br />
<br />
'''c''' and '''ç''' represent the sounds that are more traditionally written in English as '''ch''' and '''j''', IPA /tʃ/ and /dʒ/. These sounds are written in the Stops row of the table above for convenience, but they are more accurately ''affricates'', which may be thought of as sounds that are a combination of a stop and it's corresponding fricative. This use of the letters c and ç to write these sounds is precisely the opposite of how Turkish writes those same sounds (i.e. a Shireroth c corresponds to a Turkish ç, and vice-versa).<br />
<br />
'''sx''' and '''zx''' represent the sounds written in English as sh, and its voiced equivalent. The voiceless version of the sound appears in words like ship, while the voiced version is the initial sound of the second syllable in words like pleasure or leisure. <br />
<br />
'''r''' in Shireroth represents a sound not found in English, a tapped r. This sound is found in Spanish (r as opposed to rr). This sound is very similar to, but not exactly the same as, the sound of a '''t''' or '''d''' pronounced between two vowels in an unstressed syllable in American English (ex. "prattle" or "paddle").<br />
<br />
'''j''' is used, as in German, to indicate the consonant sound normally written in English as '''y''', as in "yes" or "yellow" (which a Shireroth speaker would want to write as "jes" and "jelo").<br />
<br />
'''xw''' is a voiceless w, IPA /w̥/, pronounced similarly to how some British speakers of English would pronounce the initial '''wh''' of "what" or "which" (as opposed to witch). '''w''' is the voiced version of this same sound, and is pronounced identically to the English sound written as '''w''' in words like "win" and "worry".<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| cellpadding = "3" border = "1" cellspacing = "0"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Neutral<br />
! Back<br />
<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| y<br />
| i <br />
| u <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| ö <br />
| e <br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| ä <br />
| a<br />
| å<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Shireroth's vowel system cannot be understood without understanding the concept of ''vowel harmony''. Vowel harmony is a phonological process active in the language that restricts certain types of vowels from occuring together in a single word. <br />
<br />
Shireroth's vowels are divided into three classes: ''front vowels'', namely '''y''' '''ö''' and '''ä'''; ''back vowels'', '''u o''' and''' å'''; and ''neutral vowels'', '''i''' '''u''' and '''a''', for a total of nine distinct vowels in the langauge. The principle of vowel harmony states that a single word may either contain front vowels but no back vowels, or back vowels but no front vowels. The neutral vowels do not participate in vowel harmony, and may occur in all types of words.<br />
<br />
(In phonetics, the terms front, central and back are often used to describe vowels based on where in the mouth they are physically articulated. Clearly, the vowel harmony in Shireroth has its basis in the backness and frontness of the vowels, but that is not the whole story. /i/ and /e/, for instance, are phonetically front vowels just like y and ø are, but the former are not affected by vowel harmony and the latter are. The Wikipedia article on vowel harmony gives a more in-depth overview of the linguistic concept, and provides examples of it occuring in several different languages. In fact, the vowel harmony processes in Finnish are quite similar to the ones in Shireroth, owing to their similar vowel inventories.)<br />
<br />
While the writing system of English does a reasonably good job representing English's consonants in a straightforward manner, its ways of representing vowels are terrible, and there is no straightforward way of describing Shireroth's vowels in terms of written English vowels. Shireroth has exactly nine vowels written with exactly nine separate letters, and the ways that those letters are used in English should in no way influence a person trying to use them to write Shireroth.<br />
<br />
'''y''' represents a high front rounded vowel /y/, which is not found in English. This is sound of Finnish yksi, or German über, or French tu. An English speaker can produce this sound by saying the vowel of see, and then rounding their lips without otherwise changing the way the pronounce the vowel.<br />
<br />
'''ö''' represents a mid front rounded vowel /ø/, which is also not found in English, but exists in Finnish and German in words like ön and Göbbels. A speaker of English can produce this sound by pronouncing an e and rounding their lips as if they were pronouncing an '''o''' or '''u'''.<br />
<br />
'''æ''' represents a low front unrounded vowel /æ/, found in English as the vowel sound of pat or cat. The Shireroth word ræd is pronounced almost like the English word rad. In Shireroth, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a word. In words containing the vowel '''a''', '''æ''' is often pronounced more like an [ɛ], the sound of English "pet" or "set", to maximally distinguish it from '''a'''.<br />
<br />
'''i''' represents a high front unrounded vowel /i/ (here, "front" refers to a phonetic description of the vowel. It is not a "front" vowel for the purposes of vowel harmony). This is the sound of English "pea" or "see", only not generally pronounced as long as the English vowel would be.<br />
<br />
'''e''' represents a mid front unrounded vowel /e/ which is neutral to vowel harmony. This vowel varies between the English vowel sounds of "pen" and "pain" - and so, we might expect a speaker of Shireroth to have difficulty with those two vowel sounds in English, and mix up words like pet and pain frequently until they were more comfortable with English's different vowel system.<br />
<br />
'''a''' represents a low central unrounded vowel /a/. This vowel is not found in American English. It is somewhere between '''æ''' and '''å''' in quality, and is neutral to vowel harmony.<br />
<br />
'''u''' represents a high back rounded vowel, similar to the English sound in lewd or sue. Some dialects of English pronounce this vowel noticably forward in the mouth, and round it less. This does not happen in Shireroth - the vowel u is always pronounced in the back of the mouth with rounded lips.<br />
<br />
'''o''' represents a mid back rounded vowel, somewhat similar to the English vowel in low or sew. Note that most dialects of English tend to pronounce this sound as a diphthong, which does not occur in Shireroth.<br />
<br />
'''å''' represents a low back unrounded vowel /ɑ/. This is the vowel of "cot" and "caught" for English speakers who do not pronounce those two words differently (for instance, most English speakers in western North America).<br />
<br />
Owing to vowel harmony, there are many suffixes in Shireroth which have two different forms - one with back vowels, one with front vowels - depending on whether the word the affix is attached to has front or back vowels. For instance, the suffix marking the accusative case is -æ for words with front vowels (so the accusative of ''ræd'' is ''rædæ''), but -å for words with back vowels (so the accusative of ''sxun'' is ''sxunå''). Suffixes like these which have vowels subject to change under vowel harmony are written like this: -'''æ/å'''. <br />
<br />
Some affixes which change under vowel harmony do not have pairs of front and back vowels, but instead pairs of neutral and back vowels. For instance, the affix marking the plural accusative is '''-a/å'''. For back vowel words, this means that the plural and singular accusatives are identical: '''sxun''' (nom), '''sxunå''' (acc sg/pl). But front vowel words consequently have different singular and plural accusatives: ræd (nom), rædæ (acc sg.), ræda (acc pl.).<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
<br />
Præta nouns are declined for four cases, the nominative, accusative, genitive and prepositional. Nouns are also divided into three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter, which are generally arbitrary.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
<br />
Præta has several different declension patterns for nouns, which imperfectly align with the gender system.<br />
<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant. Almost all such nouns are masculine or neuter, but there are a few feminine ones as well.<br />
<br />
Ex. ræd, (m), "house" (front vowel harmony)<br />
{| <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
!Singular<br />
!Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ræd<br />
| rædek<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| rædæ<br />
| rædæ<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| rædes<br />
| ræðez<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ræði<br />
| ræðim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In this declension class there is a minor difference between front and back vowel harmony nouns. The accusative singular suffix is -æ/å, while the accusative plural affix is -æ/a. So, nouns with front vowel harmony have identical singular and plural accusative forms (cf. ''ræd'', which has identical singular and plural accusative forms in ''rædæ'', and ''åtol'', whose singular accusative is ''åtolå'' and whose plural accusative is ''åtola'').<br />
<br />
In this declension also note the presence of '''consonant weakening (lenition)'''. Here, the ''d'' of ''ræd'' weakens to a ð due to the presence of an ''i'' in the singular and plural prepositional, as well as in the plural genitive (this is due to a historic ''i'' which has been dropped). In general, -C class nouns ending in a stop consonant (that is, ''p b t d k g'' weaken that consonant to ''f v þ ð kx j'', respectively, in the prepositional and genitive plural cases, before adding the case ending.<br />
<br />
====-Cpal declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is made up of nouns ending in one of the consonants -c, -ç, -sx or -zx. These nouns are exclusively feminine. Historically, these nouns ended in a feminine marking suffix -i, explaining the palatalization. This class is almost entirely made of front vowel harmony nouns.<br />
<br />
ex. mec<br />
<br />
{| <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
!Singular<br />
!Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| mec<br />
| mecim<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| mecel<br />
| mecele<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| meces<br />
| mecez<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| meci<br />
| mecim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
==== -o/ö declension ====<br />
<br />
Much like how -a is a characteristic vowel of the feminine gender in Spanish, -o/ö is the equivalent vowel in Præta. Almost all nouns ending in -o/ö are in the feminine gender, and they decline thusly.<br />
<br />
{| <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
!Singular<br />
!Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| læjö<br />
| læjöm<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| læje<br />
| læjem<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| læjys<br />
| læjyz<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| læji<br />
| læjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== -u/-y declension====<br />
<br />
-u/y declension nouns are all either masculine or feminine, lacking neuters entirely. Generally, nouns ending in -y (i.e front-vowel harmony nouns) are feminine, while nouns ending -u (back-vowel harmony nouns) are masculine, but there are a few exceptions to this tendency. The presence of the -w blocks consonant lenition in the Genitive plural, but lenition still occurs in the prepositional singular and plural if the noun stem has one of the affected consonants.<br />
<br />
<br />
ex. ''jatu'', (m) sheep<br />
{| <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
!Singular<br />
!Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| jatu<br />
| jatwek<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| jatwel<br />
| jatwele<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| jatwes<br />
| jatwez<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| jaþi<br />
| jaþim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
ex. ''harsy'', (fem), "prostitute"<br />
<br />
{| <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
!Singular<br />
!Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| harsy<br />
| harswem<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| harswel<br />
| harswele<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| harswes<br />
| harswez<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| harsxi<br />
| harsxim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used for nouns whose stems end in a vowel (apart from feminine -o/ö nouns and masculine -u nouns). These nouns are generally feminine, but some masculine and neuter nouns occur in this declension as well.<br />
<br />
ex. Præta (fem), "speech"<br />
{| <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
!Singular<br />
!Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| præta<br />
| prætan<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| prætan<br />
| prætane<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| prætanes<br />
| prætanse<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| prætani<br />
| prætanim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-n declension====<br />
<br />
-n declension nouns are either feminine or neuter. No masculine noun may occur in this declension class. <br />
<br />
Ex. sxun (n.), "spike" (back vowel declension)<br />
<br />
{| <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
!Singular<br />
!Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| sxun<br />
| sxunk<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| sxunå<br />
| sxunåk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| sxunz<br />
| sxunsk<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| sxuni<br />
| sxunim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This class of nouns is made up of nouns whose nominative singular ends in a -t. This class is exclusively made up of neuter nouns. While it is not always easy to determine the gender of a Præta noun by knowing it's form, any noun ending in a -t in the nominative singular can be assumed to be neuter and decline according to this pattern.<br />
<br />
<br />
Ex. ''zxelt'', "leg"<br />
{| <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
!Singular<br />
!Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| zxelt<br />
| zxelk<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| zxelæ<br />
| zxelæk<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| zxeles<br />
| zxelesk<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| zxeli<br />
| zxelim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Vocative case===<br />
<br />
Præta has a marginal vocative case, only used with personal names and some nouns used as titles (ex. king, general). The vocative is also largely restricted to polite and formal language, although some vocative constructions, especially with personal names, have a prejorative meaning. <br />
<br />
The vocative is formed very simply and regularly. For nouns whose stem ends in a consonant (i.e all nouns except neuters ending in -t), regardless of declension class, the vocative is formed by adding an -e to the noun stem. So, the vocative of ''kajsar'', "king" is ''kajsare'', "O King". Nouns whose stems end in a vowel have a vocative identical to the nominative, except for -t neuters, which drop the t. The vocative of ''sxulomåt'', "duke" (which, recall, is a neuter -t noun with a vowel stem), has a vocative identical to its own stem: ''sxulomǻ'', "O duke".<br />
<br />
===The determiner===<br />
<br />
In Præta, most modifiers come after the noun (ex. ''læjö byraza til si sxikxi'', "a long road to the city", lit. road long to the city"). However, there is a class of modifiers to the noun, termed '''determiners''', that can appear immediately before the noun. This class of determiners includes the article (''se'', "the"), numbers (''sof'', "two"; ''håpsa'', "first"), and certain quantifiers (''meci'', "every, all"; ''nul'', "no, not any").<br />
<br />
In general, only one determiner can appear in the position immediately before the noun at a time. So, in order to modify a noun with multiple determiners, one of them is placed in the initial position (generally, this is an article), and the other one is placed after the noun, just as if it were a normal adjective or other modifier. For instance, "two roads" in Præta is ''sof læjöm'', but "the two roads" is ''sum læjöm sof''. ''sof'', "two" is treated as an adjective even thought<br />
<br />
==Personal Pronouns==<br />
<br />
Præta has nine personal pronouns:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| border = "1" cellspacing = "0" cellpadding = "4"<br />
!<br />
!Singular<br />
!Plural<br />
|-<br />
!1st Person<br />
| æj<br />
| sym<br />
|-<br />
!2nd person<br />
| desæ<br />
| desæn<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd person<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Masculine<br />
| þun<br />
| senk<br />
|-<br />
|Feminine<br />
| þo<br />
| senk<br />
|-<br />
|Neuter<br />
| sxå<br />
| senk<br />
|-<br />
| Human <br />
| sen<br />
| senk<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Præta's 2nd person pronoun declines like a regular -æ ending noun. ''desæn'' is the regular plural of that class of nouns, and the other cases are formed regularly as well. 'Desæ' seems to be a loan from Yardistani or a closely-related langauge, explaining its regularity. The other personal pronouns seem to be native and, as might be expected, decline irregularly.<br />
<br />
The masculine, feminine and neuter third person pronouns are used only for inanimates, and agree in gender with the grammatical gender of their antecedent. Humans and some animals (generally pets, working animals, or otherwise easily-personifiable creatures) are referred to in the third person singular by a separate pronoun, ''sen''. This pronoun is historically a 3rd person '''plural''' pronoun, and its application to ''singular'' human antecedents is similar to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_they phenomenon of singular-they] in English.<br />
<br />
Præta has taken this process further than English has, however; ''sen'' is the default pronoun for referring to a human in the 3rd person singular, and ''þo'' or ''þun'' can only be used with 3rd person human antecedents to specifically call attention to their gender. ''sxå'' is never used for a human antecedent, though it is occasionally used with animals. "That man" or "that woman" would be better translations than "he" or "she" for Præta's third person gendered pronouns used with a human antecedent.<br />
<br />
As a result of its historical origin, ''sen'' has plural subject or object agreement on the verb, even when referring to a singular human antecedent, while ''þun'', ''þo'' and ''sxå'' have singular agreement. In the plural, all the 3rd person pronouns merge as ''senk'', and take plural agreement.<br />
<br />
===Pronoun Declension===<br />
<br />
====First person====<br />
<br />
{| border = "1" cellspacing = "0" cellpadding = "4"<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj<br />
| sym<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| hån<br />
| son<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| hin<br />
| von<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| hi<br />
| vi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Second person====<br />
The second person pronoun declines like a regular -V declension noun. <br />
<br />
{| border = "1" cellspacing = "0" cellpadding = "4"<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| desæ<br />
| desæn<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| desæn<br />
| desæne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| desænes<br />
| desænse<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| desæni<br />
| desænim<br />
|}<br />
===Third Person===<br />
<br />
<br />
''þun'' - third person masculine pronoun<br />
<br />
{| border = "1" cellspacing = "0" cellpadding = "4"<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þun<br />
| senk<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þån<br />
| sxik<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þono<br />
| sxono<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þi<br />
| sxi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Verb Morphology==<br />
<br />
Præta verb morphology is something akin to Basque; that is, only a small minority of verbs are inflectable, and <br />
most inflectional information is actually expressed through periphrastic verb constructions. Præta does have some encoding of both subject and object on the verb - the subject is encoded by a relatively sparse set of personal endings (comparable to German), while the object of (transitive or benefactive) verbs is encoded by a set of prefixes. Historically, these prefixes are actually ''politeness'' prefixes, with polite forms generalized to always refer to 2nd person objects and plain forms generalized to 1st person objects (comparable to Japanese, which has, for instance, ''ageru'' for "give (to someone else)" vs. ''kureru'', "give (to me)" ).<br />
<br />
Because there are so few verbs which inflect, and because those verbs are so common, these verbs are basically irregular. But once the irregular conjugation of those few verbs is learned, every verbal construction in the language (except the simple past, which is completely regular) works the same way.<br />
<br />
Verbs also have two participles, the ''imperfect participle'' and the ''perfect participle'', as well as a general <br />
nominalized form, the ''gerund'', which fulfills many of the same roles that the infinitive and gerund (i.e. the -ing form) do in English. The citation form is actually the 3rd person singular form of the verb, rather than the infinitive as is common for romance languages. In Præta the infinitive is always formed very regularly, whereas knowing the 3rd person singular form is enough to know how to fully conjugate the verb.<br />
<br />
===Simple Past===<br />
<br />
The simple past tense is the only tense that is directly expressed on regular verbs - all other tenses are formed with inflected (and generally irregular) auxuiliary verbs (like English "is coming", "will be seeing", etc.). There are two conjugations of verbs with consonant stems, and only one conjugation for verbs with vowel stems.<br />
<br />
Vowel stem verbs: ex. ''torku'', "turn, twist", <br />
{| border=1 cellpadding=3<br />
|-<br />
! Verb form<br />
! Pronoun<br />
|-<br />
| torkun<br />
| æj<br />
|-<br />
| torku<br />
| desæ<br />
|-<br />
| torku <br />
| þun/sxå<br />
|-<br />
| torkult<br />
| sym<br />
|-<br />
| torkut<br />
| desæt<br />
|-<br />
| torkut<br />
| sen/senk<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Consonant stem conjugation I example: ''kart'', "to run" (front vowel), ''dång'', "to burn, set fire" (back vowel harmony)<br />
{| border=1 cellpadding=3<br />
|-<br />
! Verb form<br />
! Pronoun<br />
|-<br />
| karta/dånga<br />
| æj<br />
|-<br />
| kart/dång<br />
| desæ<br />
|-<br />
| karti/dångi<br />
| þun/sxå<br />
|-<br />
| kartyt/dångut<br />
| sym<br />
|-<br />
| kartyt/dångut<br />
| desæt<br />
|-<br />
| kartyt/dångut<br />
| sen/senk<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Consonant stem conjugation II example: ''cæzöti'', "to chase" (front harmony), ''muçuri'', "to kill" (back harmony)<br />
<br />
{| border=1 cellpadding=3<br />
|-<br />
! Verb form<br />
! Pronoun<br />
|-<br />
| cæzöta/muçura<br />
| æj<br />
|-<br />
| cæzöt/muçur<br />
| desæ<br />
|-<br />
| cæzöti/muçuri<br />
| þun/sxå<br />
|-<br />
| cæzötit/muçurit<br />
| sym<br />
|-<br />
| cæzötit/cæzötit<br />
| desæt<br />
|-<br />
| cæzötit/muçurit<br />
| sen/senk<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For vowel-stem verbs, the personal endings are: æj -n, desæ -0, þun/sxå -0, sym -lt, desæt -t, sen/senk -t. For consonant stem verbs of the first conjugation, they are: æj -a, desæ -0, þun/sxå -0, sym -yt/ut, desæt -yt/ut, sen/senk -yt/ut. Of the second conjugation, they are: æj -a, desæ -0, þun/sxå -i, sym -it, desæt -it, sen/senk -it.<br />
<br />
It is easy to tell if a consonant-stem verb is in the 1st or 2nd conjugation by knowing whether the 3rd person<br />
singular has no ending or -i, since verbs are cited by their 3rd person singular form. There is a slight possibility of confusion with vowel-stem verbs which happen to end in -i, but those are very rare.<br />
<br />
===Participle and Infinitive forms===<br />
<br />
The participle and infinitive forms are very important, because they form the basis for all the other tenses.<br />
<br />
There are two types of participle forms, the imperfect participle and the perfect participle. Different auxiliary verbs require the main verb to be in the imperfect or perfect form in order to form particular tenses. The infinitive is used with other auxiliary verbs, and is also used to form the simple nominalization of a verb (just like how in English we can say "To err is human" or "Running away from your problems is bad").<br />
<br />
The 2 types of consonant-stem conjugation don't matter for forming the infinitive and participle forms, the endings<br />
only differ between consonant-stem and vowel-stem verbs.<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|<br />
| Vowel-stem (ex. ''kartu'')<br />
| Consonant-stem (ex. ''dång'' (back vowel), ''kart'' (front vowel))<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfect Participle<br />
| ''kartu-ni''<br />
| ''dång-i''<br />
|-<br />
! Perfect Participle<br />
| ''kartu-z''<br />
| ''dång-åz'' (''kart-æz'')<br />
|-<br />
! Infinitive<br />
| ''kartu-ça''<br />
| ''dång-oça'' (''kart-öça'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Simple Present===<br />
<br />
The simple present is formed using one of three '''auxiliary verbs''' - ''zaça'' (intransitive and 3rd person obj) ''giça'' (1st person object) and ''kuçå'' (2nd person object) - plus a '''main verb''' in its imperfect participle form. The simple present is much like the english ''be''-progressive (as in "I am seeing", "You're running", "We're playing a game") in both its meaning and the way the construction is formed - you can think of the '''imperfect participle''' as basically the same as the -ing form of an English verb, and ''zaça'', ''giça'' and ''kuçå'' as different forms of the "to be" verb.<br />
<br />
How do you decide which of the three auxiliary verbs to use? It depends on the '''object''' of the whole verb construction. Intransitive verbs (verbs without an object, like "run", "think", "fly") and verbs with a 3rd person object (like in "I'm seeing a cow", "I'm eating some pie", "You were shoving him roughly into a pile of dung") use ''zaça''. Verbs with a 2nd person object use ''kuçå'' - "I saw you in the garden", "The monster attacked you", "Don't you kill yourself!" and verbs with a 1st person object use ''giça'' ("I saw myself in the mirror", "They took us to the party"). In all cases it doesn't matter whether the object is singular or plural, only whether it is 1st, 2nd or 3rd person.<br />
<br />
As befitting very common grammatical function words, all three of these auxiliary verbs are highly irregular. Their conjugation pattern is given below. Note that the infinitive forms of these verbs are irregular - they are not predictable from knowing the form of the 3rd person singular like with most verbs, and so have to be listed separately. <br />
<br />
''zaça'', 3rd-person-objective auxiliary<br />
{| border=1 cellpadding=3<br />
|-<br />
! Verb form<br />
! Pronoun<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| æj<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| desæ<br />
|-<br />
| za <br />
| þun/sxå<br />
|-<br />
| zån<br />
| sym<br />
|-<br />
| zån<br />
| desæt<br />
|-<br />
| zån<br />
| sen/senk<br />
|}<br />
<br />
It is very common for the form ''za æj'', "I am (doing something)" to be contracted to ''zæj''.<br />
<br />
<br />
''giça'', 1st-person-objective auxiliary<br />
{| border=1 cellpadding=3<br />
|-<br />
! Verb form<br />
! Pronoun<br />
|-<br />
| gel<br />
| æj<br />
|-<br />
| gy<br />
| desæ<br />
|-<br />
| gil <br />
| þun/sxå<br />
|-<br />
| çi<br />
| sym<br />
|-<br />
| çi<br />
| desæt<br />
|-<br />
| çi<br />
| sen/senk<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
''kuçå'', 2nd-person-objective auxiliary<br />
{| border=1 cellpadding=3<br />
|-<br />
! Verb form<br />
! Pronoun<br />
|-<br />
| kuz<br />
| æj<br />
|-<br />
| ke<br />
| desæ<br />
|-<br />
| kuzå<br />
| þun/sxå<br />
|-<br />
| kåz<br />
| sym<br />
|-<br />
| kåz<br />
| desæt<br />
|-<br />
| kåz<br />
| sen/senk<br />
|}<br />
<br />
It is very common for the 3rd person singular form of this verb to be reduced to ''ku'': ''ku þun'' and ''ku sxå'' instead of the full ''kuzå þun'' and ''kuzå sxå''.<br />
<br />
==Prepositions==<br />
<br />
Præta uses prepositions to indicate certain types of relationships, often spatial, between objects. Further, some verbs require complements of a prepositional phrase of a particular preposition.<br />
<br />
''að'' - translated as "of" or "from", used primarily to indicate direction from which movement has occured: ''Hjalpta æj að se ræði'', I walked '''away from''' the house.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Præta has Verb-Subject-Object (VSO) word order. More generally, Præta is typologically a ''head-initial language'' - that is, a language in which modifiers tend to come after the constituent they modify. So, in Præta adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, there are prepositions instead of postpositions, etc.<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
<br />
At this time, only a very incomplete list, of course. This is mostly just to have some vocabulary to play around with when making example sentences.<br />
<br />
sxun (m. noun) spike,nail<br><br />
ræd (m. noun) house<br><br />
jor (adv) yesterday<br><br />
læjö (f. noun) road, path<br><br />
mec (f. noun) fire<br><br />
hys (f. noun) person<br><br />
måna (adj) male<br><br />
odmåna (adj) female<br><br />
pike (f. noun) sword<br><br />
traum (n. noun) journey<br><br />
sult (n. noun) ocean<br><br />
æksel (m. noun) arm, metaphorically weapon<br><br />
zxelt (n. noun) leg<br><br />
sxulomåt (n. noun) duke<br><br />
jatu (m. noun) sheep<br><br />
til (preposition) to, until<br><br />
sikx (n. noun) city<br><br />
åtol (m. noun) island<br /><br />
waçhörsy (f. noun) parliament, council<br /><br />
waçet (n. noun) country, land</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10441Shirerothian language2010-12-28T11:07:37Z<p>Tau: /* History */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 262 ASC.<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken from the beginning of Kaiser Erik II's reign in 262 ASC until 1239 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian is traditionally dated to have begun with Kaiser Nikkolo I's reign in 1239 ASC, and lasted until 3004 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser Mors V in 3004 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo<br />
| seo<br />
| sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene<br />
| sene<br />
| sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk<br />
| uk<br />
| uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka<br />
| uk<br />
| ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes<br />
| ykes<br />
| ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki<br />
| yki<br />
| yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions að ("of" or "from") and zxa ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| taku<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| vozx<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10440Shirerothian language2010-12-28T10:07:57Z<p>Tau: /* Language contact with Eldurian */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken in Shireroth approximately from 16,000 BSC to 9000 BSC.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian was spoken approximately from 9000 BSC to 4000 BSC.<br />
<br />
===Ancient Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
===Archaic Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 200 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian covers the period of approximately 200 ASC to 2500 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser ____ in 2500 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "gate" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "gate" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo<br />
| seo<br />
| sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene<br />
| sene<br />
| sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk<br />
| uk<br />
| uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka<br />
| uk<br />
| ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes<br />
| ykes<br />
| ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki<br />
| yki<br />
| yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions að ("of" or "from") and zxa ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| taku<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| vozx<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Shirerothian_language&diff=10439Shirerothian language2010-12-28T10:02:30Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Shirerothian<br />
| nativename= ''Præta Sxiröþes''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈprætɑ ʃiˈrøθes|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= National<br />
| speakers= 0<br />
| familycolor= lightgreen<br />
| fam1= Shirerothian<br />
| fam2= Central Shirerothian<br />
| fam3= Brookshirian<br />
| script= Latin (Shirerothian variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= Department of Constructed Languages<br />
| mic1= shr<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Shirerothian''' or '''Shirerithian''' language (''Præta Sxiröþes'' in Shirerothian) is a constructed language from [[Shireroth]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has been spoken in Shireroth for thousands of years.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Proto-Shirerothian, the ancestral language of Shirerothian, was spoken in Shireroth approximately from 16,000 BSC to 9000 BSC.<br />
<br />
===Proto-Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Proto-Shirerothian was spoken approximately from 9000 BSC to 4000 BSC.<br />
<br />
===Ancient Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
===Archaic Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
===Old Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was spoken approximately from 4000 BSC to 200 ASC.<br />
<br />
Old Shirerothian was heavily inflected, with eight noun cases (nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative) and seven noun declensions. Verbs were divided into six conjugations.<br />
<br />
However, Old Shirerothian was characterized by only two genders; the neuter gender did not develop until early Middle Shirerothian. <br />
<br />
===Middle Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian covers the period of approximately 200 ASC to 2500 ASC.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian greatly simplified the Old Shirerothian noun system. The dative, ablative, instrumental, and locative cases all merged into a prepositional case, and the original seven noun declensions were reduced to four. Adjectives were no longer inflected for gender. Additionally, the middle voice merged into the passive, and the dual number merged into the plural.<br />
<br />
Middle Shirerothian also saw the development of the human gender of the third-person singular pronoun.<br />
<br />
===Modern Shirerothian===<br />
<br />
Modern Shirerothian has traditionally been dated to begin with the reign of Kaiser ____ in 2500 ASC. Distinguishing features of Modern Shirerothian include the following:<br />
<br />
* The loss of the vocative case.<br />
<br />
* The loss of breathy voiced plosives: /bʱ/ > /b/, /dʱ/ > /d/, and /gʱ/ > /g/.<br />
<br />
* The rhotacization of intervocalic /z/.<br />
<br />
* The fricativization of voiceless plosives: /pt/ > /ft/, /tt/ > /θt/, and /kt/ > /xt/.<br />
<br />
The last development may have developed under the influence of Eldurian.<br />
<br />
===Language contact with Eldurian===<br />
<br />
As attested by the large number of loanwords and borrowings into its grammar, Shirerothian has been in contact with Eldurian for a large part of its history. The amount and type of words borrowed suggests that such contact has been quite intimate. For example, Old Shirerothian borrowed basic words such as ''portale'' "door" (Eldurian ''portale''), ''porko'' "pig" (Eldurian ''porce''), ''pikxtyre'' "picture" (Eldurian ''pichture''), and ''li'' "here" (Eldurian ''ile'', meaning "this").<br />
<br />
The pronunciation of Eldurian loanwords in Shirerothian has been used to help date certain sound changes in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian traditionally did not mark that a word-final l had become vocalized. Linguists thus had to turn to Eldurian loanwords in other languages in order to date l-vocalization.<br />
<br />
In Shirerothian, both ''portale'' "door" (''portale'') and ''ræw'' "regal" (''regale'') were borrowed from Eldurian. While ''portale'' first appeared in mid-to-late Old Shirerothian, ''ræw'' did not appear until Middle Shirerothian. The fact that ''ræw'' does not contain an l establishes that l-vocalization in Eldurian must have occurred during the transition from Old Shirerothian to Middle Shirerothian. Comparisons to Eldurian loanwords into other languages during this time period, as well as the discovery of the Varjaga Cave Journals, bears out this theory: ''portale'', pronounced [pɔrˈtaːle] in Old Eldurian, became [pɔrˈtaːw] in Middle Eldurian. Similarly, ''regale'' was pronounced [reˈgaːle] in Old Eldurian and [reˈgaːw] in Middle Eldurian.<br />
<br />
A few grammatical features also have their roots in Eldurian. For example, Eldurian uses the neuter third-person pronoun to indicate a person or group of people of unspecified or mixed gender. Shirerothian independently developed a "human" gender third-person pronoun for the same purpose in the singular, but like Eldurian, uses the neuter gender in the plural. This borrowing appears to have first occurred during late Middle Shirerothian.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, some linguists have posited that the development of the neuter gender was influenced by the existence of the neuter gender in the Eldurian, which in Eldurian has become the dominant gender.<br />
<br />
Curiously, while Shirerothian has borrowed liberally from Eldurian, there has been nearly no borrowing at all from Shirerothian into Eldurian.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian alphabet contains 30 individual letters and 6 digraphs. Each digraph is considered a separate letter in the alphabet, and thus, Shirerothian has a total of 36 letters. The letter ''x'' does not have a pronunciation of its own, and is used only in combinations with other letters.<br />
<br />
The table below shows the correspondence between the Shirerothian alphabet and IPA. The English pronunciations are based on General American English.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! IPA<br />
! English pronunciation<br />
|-<br />
| a<br />
| [ɑ]<br />
| f'''a'''ther<br />
|-<br />
| æ<br />
| [æ]<br />
| f'''a'''t<br />
|-<br />
| b<br />
| [b]<br />
| '''b'''at<br />
|-<br />
| c<br />
| [tʃ]<br />
| '''ch'''urch<br />
|-<br />
| ç<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| bri'''dg'''e<br />
|-<br />
| d<br />
| [d]<br />
| '''d'''og<br />
|-<br />
| ð<br />
| [ð]<br />
| '''th'''e<br />
|-<br />
| e<br />
| [e]<br />
| Approx. like h'''ai'''l<br />
|-<br />
| f<br />
| [f]<br />
| '''f'''at<br />
|-<br />
| g<br />
| [g]<br />
| '''g'''ift<br />
|-<br />
| h<br />
| [h]<br />
| '''h'''ome<br />
|-<br />
| i<br />
| [i]<br />
| d'''ee'''d<br />
|-<br />
| j<br />
| [j]<br />
| '''y'''es<br />
|-<br />
| k<br />
| [k]<br />
| '''k'''ing<br />
|-<br />
| kx<br />
| [x]<br />
| (Scottish) lo'''ch'''<br />
|-<br />
| l<br />
| [l]<br />
| '''l'''eave<br />
|-<br />
| lx<br />
| [ɬ]<br />
| (Welsh) '''ll'''wyd<br />
|-<br />
| m<br />
| [m]<br />
| '''m'''an<br />
|-<br />
| n<br />
| [n]<br />
| '''n'''o<br />
|-<br />
| ng<br />
| [ŋ]<br />
| sa'''ng'''<br />
|-<br />
| o<br />
| [o]<br />
| Approx. like c'''oa'''l<br />
|-<br />
| ö<br />
| [ø]<br />
| (German) sch'''ö'''n<br />
|-<br />
| p<br />
| [p]<br />
| '''p'''ie<br />
|-<br />
| r<br />
| [r]<br />
| (Spanish) bu'''rr'''o<br />
|-<br />
| s<br />
| [s]<br />
| '''s'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| sx<br />
| [ʃ]<br />
| '''sh'''ock<br />
|-<br />
| t<br />
| [t]<br />
| '''t'''ame<br />
|-<br />
| þ<br />
| [θ]<br />
| '''th'''in<br />
|-<br />
| u<br />
| [u]<br />
| f'''oo'''d<br />
|-<br />
| v<br />
| [v]<br />
| '''v'''ein<br />
|-<br />
| w<br />
| [w]<br />
| '''w'''ant<br />
|-<br />
| wx<br />
| [ʍ]<br />
| (Old-fashioned) '''wh'''ale<br />
|-<br />
| y<br />
| [y]<br />
| (French) t'''u'''<br />
|-<br />
| z<br />
| [z]<br />
| '''z'''oo<br />
|-<br />
| zx<br />
| [ʒ]<br />
| mira'''ge'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
The Shirerothian language contains a rich inventory of 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
===Phonemes===<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian consonant phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center<br />
|- <br />
! <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| {{IPA|p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|b}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|d}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|g}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Affricate<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|tʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|dʒ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|θ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ð}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʍ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral Fricative<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Notes=====<br />
<br />
[l] is a "clear" l (alveolar lateral approximant), and is thus pronounced like "'''l'''eave" [liːv], not "te'''ll'''" [tɛɫ] (which has a "dark" l, or velarized alveolar lateral approximant).<br />
<br />
[ɬ] is a rare sound in European languages. For help pronouncing [ɬ], see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative Wikipedia].<br />
<br />
[ŋ] can occur at the syllable onset, unlike in English where it can never occur at the syllable onset.<br />
<br />
[p], [t], and [k] are never aspirated.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
The table below shows the Shirerothian vowel phonemes.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! Front<br />
! Back<br />
|- align=center<br />
! High<br />
| i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(y)<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Mid<br />
| e&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(ø)<br />
| o <br />
|- align=center<br />
! Low<br />
| æ<br />
| ɑ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[y] and [ø] are allophones of /u/ and /o/, respectively, occurring in complementary distribution with [u] and [o].<br />
<br />
There are five diphthongs: [æj], [æw], [iw], [oj], and [øj]. They are best analyzed phonemically as /Vj/ rather than /Vɪ̯/.<br />
<br />
====Stress====<br />
<br />
The vest majority of Shirerothian words have paroxytonic stress, i.e., they are almost always stressed on the second-to-last syllable. Exceptions are marked in the orthography with an acute accent:<br />
<br />
* zxádurum [ˈʒɑdurum] "desk"<br />
<br />
====Metaphony====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian exhibits regressive metaphony (or less precisely, umlaut or vowel harmony), a long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels across boundaries.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align=center<br />
!<br />
! [-back] [-rounded]<br />
! [-back] [+rounded]<br />
! [+back] [+rounded]<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [+high] [-low]<br />
| i<br />
| y<br />
| u<br />
|- align=center<br />
! [-high] [-low]<br />
| e<br />
| ø<br />
| o<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The rule for Shirerothian is fairly straightforward: [-low, +back] vowels (i.e., o and u) become [-back] when the next vowel in the word is [-low, -back] (i.e., i and e). This is represented in the orthography by the changes from o &rarr; ö and u &rarr; y. For instance,<br />
<br />
* læjo [ˈlæjo] "road" &rarr; læjöne [læˈjøne] "roads"<br />
<br />
When possible, metaphony proceeds across the entire word:<br />
<br />
* /urkoli/ &rarr; yrköli [yrˈkøli] "island"<br />
<br />
/æ/ and /ɑ/ are considered neutral vowels. Neutral vowels in Shirerothian are opaque, and thus, the presence of a neutral vowel will block any further metaphony:<br />
<br />
* /muritɑ/ &rarr; myrita [myˈritɑ] "tomorrow", but<br />
<br />
* /portɑle/ &rarr; portale [porˈtɑle], not *pörtale "door"<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has the following syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)(C)<br />
<br />
====Onset====<br />
<br />
====Nucleus====<br />
<br />
All vowels, and only vowels, can appear in the nucleus.<br />
<br />
====Coda====<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian is a highly inflected language.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has three noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a consonant, except for those ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine or neuter, with a few limited exceptions.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in a vowel. The vast majority of nouns in this class are feminine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-t declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with noun stems ending in -t. All nouns in this class are masculine.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -ana<br />
| -ene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns in Shirerothian, not unexpectedly, are often irregular. Unusually, Shirerothian declines all pronouns by gender, although in the plural, many forms have been merged.<br />
<br />
The neuter gender is listed after the masculine because it originally developed from the masculine in Old Shirerothian. Even today, the neuter shares many of the same endings as the masculine.<br />
<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====First person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''æj, æjon, æjo'' <br /> I<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| æj || æje || æjon || æje || æjo || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| æja || æje || æjon || æje || æjon || æjöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| æjes || æjese || æjes || æjese || æjönes || æjönese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| æji || æjim || æji || æjim || æji || æjim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Second person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''þu, þun, þuno'' <br /> you<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| þu || þyne || þun || þyne || þuno || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| þuna || þyne || þun || þyne || þuna || þyne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese || þynes || þynese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim || þyni || þynim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Third person=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="8" | ''el, e, elo, se'' <br /> he, she, it, they<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
! colspan="2" | Human<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| el || sene || e || sene || elo || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ela || sene || en || sene || elon || sene || se || -<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| eles || senese || enes || senese || elönes || senese || senese || -<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| eli || senim || eni || senim || elöni || senim || senim || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The "human" form is used to describe a person without indicating his or her gender. This is very similar to the use of "they" as a singular third-person pronoun in English. The human form originally developed from the old third-person plural, which was reanalyzed as a singular. To distinguish between the former plural, which had become a singular, and the true plural, a plural marker was added to the pronoun. The human form does not have a plural; the neuter plural is used when describing a group of people without specifying their gender, or when describing a mixed-gender group of people. While the use of a human form for the singular in Shirerothian appears to be an independent innovation, the use of the neuter plural is likely a borrowing from Eldurian. (It is known that the neuter plural is used because Middle Shirerothian distinguished between masculine, neuter, and feminine genders in the third-person plural, and the neuter plural was always used for unspecified- or mixed-gender groups.)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative pronouns====<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has only one demonstrative pronoun. When greater specificity is required, ''hi'' "here", ''li'' "there", or ''ili'' "yonder" can be used:<br />
<br />
* rund ðena "this/that hat" (i.e., "the particular hat being mentioned")<br />
<br />
* ræd ðe hi "this house"<br />
<br />
* zxádurum ðena li "that desk"<br />
<br />
* jatu ðo ili "that sheep yonder"<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''ðe, ðena, ðo'' <br /> this, that<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ðe || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðo || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| ðena || ðe || ðena || ðena || ðon || ðene<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ðenes || ðenese || ðenes || ðenese || ðönes || ðenese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| ðeni || ðenim || ðeni || ðenim || ðöni || ðenim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Interrogative and relative pronouns, and interrogative adjectives====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Shirerothian does not make a distinction between human ("who") and non-human ("what") forms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|<br />
! colspan="6" | ''vo'' <br /> who, what, which<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! colspan="2" | Masculine<br />
! colspan="2" | Neuter<br />
! colspan="2" | Feminine<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| vo || vöne || vo || vöde || vo || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| voda || vöden || vo || vöde || von || vöne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ves || vese || ves || vese || ves || vese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| vi || vim || vi || vim || vi || vim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
<br />
While most determiners follow the noun, certain determiners, such as articles and numbers, precede the noun.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
<br />
Shireroth has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article declines for gender and number, but not case.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
| seo<br />
| seo<br />
| sa<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| sene<br />
| sene<br />
| sane<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Numbers====<br />
<br />
Numbers are formed rather similarly to English numbers. With the exception of ''uk'' "one", which declines according to case and gender, numbers are indeclinable.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Feminine<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| uk<br />
| uk<br />
| uko<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| uka<br />
| uk<br />
| ukon<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ykes<br />
| ykes<br />
| ykönes<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| yki<br />
| yki<br />
| yki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! Numeral<br />
|-<br />
| uk<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| za<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| joj<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| naþ<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| sxu<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| ylhi<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| gnas<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| tantif<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| stifta<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| graks<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| graksuk<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| zæf<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| jöjne<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| naðak<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| misko<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| graksylhi<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| graksangas<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| grakstantif<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| grakstifta<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| zagraks<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| zagraksuk<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| jojgraks<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| ortu<br />
| 100<br />
|-<br />
| za ortu<br />
| 200<br />
|-<br />
| gozma<br />
| 1000<br />
|-<br />
| graks gozma<br />
| 10,000<br />
|-<br />
| ortu gozma<br />
| 100,000<br />
|-<br />
| tagozma<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Shirerothian has two adjective declensions, which are identical to their respective noun declensions. Adjectives are inflected for case, but not for gender. Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
====-C declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a consonant.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -a<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -es<br />
| -ese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -i<br />
| -im<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====-V declension====<br />
<br />
This declension class is used with adjective stems ending in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
| <br />
! Singular <br />
! Plural <br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
|<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative<br />
| -n<br />
| -ne<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| -nes<br />
| -nese<br />
|-<br />
! Prepositional<br />
| -ni<br />
| -nim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
<br />
With exactly two exceptions, prepositions in Shirerothian take the prepositional case. The prepositions að ("of" or "from") and zxa ("in") take the genitive case.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
Shirerothian typically exhibits a VSO word order, although SVO or OVS can be used to emphasize the subject or object, respectively. Shirerothian also exhibits strong right-branching characteristics: Adjectives follow nouns, genitives and relative clauses follow nouns, pronouns follow verbs, and adpositions appear as prepositions. However, certain determiners such as articles and numbers precede nouns.<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
The following is a short list of certain words in Shirerothian:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Shirerothian<br />
! English<br />
! Class<br />
|-<br />
| að<br />
| of, from<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| æwdæk<br />
| sword<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| dæjta<br />
| today<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| gönleta<br />
| mango<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| hæks<br />
| arm, weapon<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| hödet<br />
| hand<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| hus<br />
| person<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| ispæjzxa<br />
| after<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| jatu<br />
| sheep<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| jor<br />
| yesterday<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| læjo<br />
| road, path<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| mec<br />
| fire<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| myrita<br />
| tomorrow<br />
| adv.<br />
|-<br />
| præta<br />
| speech, language<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| ræd<br />
| house<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| rund<br />
| hat<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sikx<br />
| city<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| sult<br />
| ocean<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| Sxiroþ<br />
| Shireroth<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| sxun<br />
| spike, nail<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| taku<br />
| to eat<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| tast<br />
| to<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| træjzxa<br />
| before<br />
| prep.<br />
|-<br />
| trojm<br />
| journey<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| vozx<br />
| to run<br />
| v.<br />
|-<br />
| wxen<br />
| male<br />
| n. (m.)<br />
|-<br />
| wxeno<br />
| female<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| yrköli<br />
| island<br />
| n. (f.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxádurum<br />
| desk<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|-<br />
| zxuk<br />
| leg<br />
| n. (n.)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/Gryphon_Avocatio/Sxir%C3%B3%C3%BEes The original description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [http://shireroth.org/shirewiki/User:Con_quesa/shireroth_conlang The conlanger's description of Shirerothian]<br />
<br />
* [https://sites.google.com/site/elorianmestec/shireroth-langauge The conlanger's preliminary sketch of Shirerothian]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Elloi&diff=10438Elloi2010-12-28T05:28:33Z<p>Tau: moved Elloi to Elloi language</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[Elloi language]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Elw_language&diff=10437Elw language2010-12-28T05:28:33Z<p>Tau: moved Elloi to Elloi language</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{language<br />
|name=Elloi<br />
|nativename= ''elloi''<br />
|familycolor=brown<br />
|nations=[[Shireroth]]<br />
|region= [[Elwynn]]<br />
|speakers=unknown<br />
|family= Unclassified<br />
|nation= dialect<br />
|agency= People's Academy of Elwynn}}<br />
<br />
'''Elloi''' ['el.lʷo.i] is a fictional language developed by [[Ric Lyon]], intended to be the native language of some groups of [[Elw]]. Grammatically, it is an a posteriori language, but some 70% of its lexis is derived from languages as Sindarin, Persian and Old Norse.<br />
<br />
The etymological diversity of Elloi reflects the subjugated status the language had first under the Elfinshi rulers, then under the Ardashirians and the Arminian ''Hurmudanka.'' Many native words lost their meaning during this time and became forgotten. Grammatically, however, Elloi has been conservative, retaining peculiarities such as independent plural markers and a system of pre- and postpositions affixed to root-words.<br />
<br />
Spoken mainly in the northern reaches of Benacia, including<br />
<br />
[[category: Conlangs]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Horjinic_language&diff=10436Horjinic language2010-12-28T05:24:24Z<p>Tau: Infobox language</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Horjinic<br />
| nativename= ''Horjingonak''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˌhɔrdʒinˈgonɑk|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= [[Isle of Naudia'Diva]]<br />
| speakers= Unknown<br />
| familycolor= tomato<br />
| fam1= Horjinic<br />
| script= Horjinic syllabary<br />
| nation= County of Naudia'Diva<br />
| agency= [[Hunters of the Stag]]<br />
| mic1= hrj<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The Hunters of the Stag speak a noun-based modular language. That is to say, in order to make a new word, you build new words by mashing together other words. In addition, there are no verbs in the Horjinic language; instead, you take a noun and add a verb ending, thereby making the necessary verb.<br />
<br />
For instance, the word for water is "''viet''" ( {{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}} ). Therefore, to drink water would be said or written as "''vietatvile''" ( {{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|le}} ) -- "''viet''" for water, and the present-tense verb ending "''atvile''". If it were to have drunk water (past tense), the word would instead be "''vietatvigi''" ( {{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|gi}} ); conversely, if it were to drink water (future tense), the word would be "''vietatvisa''" ( {{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|sa}} ).<br />
<br />
=== Runes ===<br />
<TABLE border=1><br />
<TR> <br />
<TH>Rune</TH><br />
<th>Anglicized<Br>Writing</th><br />
<th>Pronunciation</th> <br />
<TH>Old<br>Meaning</th><br />
<th>Modern<br>Meaning</th><br />
<th>Character<br>Origin</th><br />
</TR> <br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
<td>A</td><br />
<td>-Ah</td><br />
<TD>Female</TD> <br />
<td>Female</td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|at}}</td><br />
<td>At</td><br />
<td>Att</td><br />
<td>Peace</td><br />
<td>Water</td><br />
<td>Shaking Hands</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|au}}</td><br />
<td>Au</td><br />
<td>Aouw</td><br />
<td>Shield</td><br />
<td>Shield</td><br />
<td>Shield</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ax}}</td><br />
<td>Ax</td><br />
<td>Acks</td><br />
<td>Life</td><br />
<td>Life</td><br />
<td> </td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|di}}</td><br />
<td>Di</td><br />
<td>Dee</td><br />
<td>Death</td><br />
<td>Death</td><br />
<td> </td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|el}}</td><br />
<td>El</td><br />
<td>Ell</td><br />
<td>Victory</td><br />
<td>Sword</td><br />
<td>Sword</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|er}}</td><br />
<td>Er</td><br />
<td>Err</td><br />
<td>Resilience</td><br />
<td>Earth</td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|es}}</td><br />
<td>Es</td><br />
<td>Ess</td><br />
<td>Wind</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|et}}</td><br />
<td>Et</td><br />
<td>Ehtt</td><br />
<td>Sword</td><br />
<td>Fire</td><br />
<td>Sword</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|fa}}</td><br />
<td>Fa</td><br />
<td>Fah</td><br />
<td>Crops</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Scythe</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ga}}</td><br />
<td>Ga</td><br />
<td>Gah</td><br />
<td>Not</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|gi}}</td><br />
<td>Gi</td><br />
<td>Ghee</td><br />
<td>Strength</td><br />
<td>Air</td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|go}}</td><br />
<td>Go</td><br />
<td>Goh</td><br />
<td>Fire</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|hor}}</td><br />
<td>Hor</td><br />
<td>Hoar</td><br />
<td>Cat</td><br />
<td>Animal</td><br />
<td>Eye</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ig}}</td><br />
<td>Ig</td><br />
<td>Igg</td><br />
<td>Stealth</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|jin}}</td><br />
<td>Jin</td><br />
<td>Jean</td><br />
<td>God</td><br />
<td>God</td><br />
<td>Eye</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|k}}</td><br />
<td>K</td><br />
<td>-Chk</td><br />
<td>Plural</td><br />
<td>Plural</td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|le}}</td><br />
<td>Le</td><br />
<td>Lay</td><br />
<td>Spear</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Trident</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|n}}</td><br />
<td>N</td><br />
<td>-N-</td><br />
<td>Spirit</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|pe}}</td><br />
<td>Pe</td><br />
<td>Pay</td><br />
<td>Plant</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Tree</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ra}}</td><br />
<td>Ra</td><br />
<td>Rah</td><br />
<td>Sky</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|re}}</td><br />
<td>Re</td><br />
<td>Ray</td><br />
<td>Light</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Sun</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ri}}</td><br />
<td>Ri</td><br />
<td>Riee</td><br />
<td>Water</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>River</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ru}}</td><br />
<td>Ru</td><br />
<td>Rooh</td><br />
<td>Earth</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Mountains</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|sa}}</td><br />
<td>Sa</td><br />
<td>Saw</td><br />
<td>Sun</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Sun</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|se}}</td><br />
<td>Se</td><br />
<td>Say</td><br />
<td>Lightning</td><br />
<td>Spear</td><br />
<td>Lightning</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|si}}</td><br />
<td>Si</td><br />
<td>Siee</td><br />
<td>Dark</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ta}}</td><br />
<td>Ta</td><br />
<td>Tah</td><br />
<td>Sound</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|te}}</td><br />
<td>Te</td><br />
<td>Tay</td><br />
<td>Body</td><br />
<td>Man</td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|to}}</td><br />
<td>To</td><br />
<td>Tooh</td><br />
<td>Moon</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Moon</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|us}}</td><br />
<td>Us</td><br />
<td>Oose</td><br />
<td>Bow</td><br />
<td>Bow</td><br />
<td>Bow</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ve}}</td><br />
<td>Ve</td><br />
<td>Vay</td><br />
<td>Less</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|vi}}</td><br />
<td>Vi</td><br />
<td>Viee</td><br />
<td>House</td><br />
<td>House</td><br />
<td>Town</td><br />
</tr><br />
</table><br />
<br />
=== Limited Dictionary ===<br />
This is a basic dictionary with commonly accepted words among the Hunters of the Stag.<br />
<br />
<TABLE border=1><br />
<TR> <br />
<TH>English Word</TH><br />
<th>Anglicized Horjinic</th> <br />
<TH>Horjinic Runes</th><br />
</TR><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Air</TD><br />
<td>''Raga''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|ga}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>All</td><br />
<td>''Veto''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|to}}</td><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Angel</TD><br />
<td>''Totajinraleviataxten''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|ten}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Animal</TD><br />
<td>''Petara''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ra}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Arm</TD><br />
<td>''Axdiru''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|ru}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Back</TD><br />
<td>''Axdiel''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|el}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Big</TD><br />
<td>''Veus''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|us}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Bird</TD><br />
<td>''Viatax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Body</TD><br />
<td>''Axdi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Brother</TD><br />
<td>''Lenpeten''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|len}}{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|ten}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Cat</TD><br />
<td>''Risi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|si}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Chimaera</TD><br />
<td>''Petaranauvinraautaax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|vin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Death</TD><br />
<td>''Taax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Demon</TD><br />
<td>''Raautaax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Destruction</TD><br />
<td>''Taaxri''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|ri}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Divine</TD><br />
<td>''Totajinrale''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Dragon</TD><br />
<td>''Veusrengoteigeldi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|us}}{{Rune|ren}}{{Rune|go}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|ig}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|di}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Earth</TD><br />
<td>''Fael''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|el}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Father</TD><br />
<td>''Fateelten''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|ten}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Fertility</TD><br />
<td>''Fateel''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|el}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Fire</TD><br />
<td>''Rengo''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ren}}{{Rune|go}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Foot</TD><br />
<td>''Axditesa''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|sa}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Gem</td><br />
<td>''Pelefael''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|le}}{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|el}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Gift</TD><br />
<td>''Jinrale''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>God</TD><br />
<td>''Tota''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Good</TD><br />
<td>''Pele''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|le}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Griffin</TD><br />
<td>''Rungarisiviatax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|run}}{{Rune|ga}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|si}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Hair</TD><br />
<td>''Axdivisa''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|sa}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Head</td><br />
<td>''Axdivi''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|vi}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Horn</td><br />
<td>''Axdivijin''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|jin}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Horse</TD><br />
<td>''Sitadi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|si}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|di}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Hunt</td><br />
<td>''Regigo''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|re}}{{Rune|gi}}{{Rune|go}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Insect</TD><br />
<td>''Igfanpe''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ig}}{{Rune|fan}}{{Rune|pe}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Island</TD><br />
<td>''Divea''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>[[Jackalope]]</td><br />
<td>''Axdivijink Igesto''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|k}} {{Rune|ig}}{{Rune|es}}{{Rune|to}}<br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>[[Kaiser]]</TD><br />
<td>''Totajinrale Horgorisa''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}} {{Rune|hor}}{{Rune|go}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|sa}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Leader</TD><br />
<td>''Horgorisa''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|hor}}{{Rune|go}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|sa}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Leg</TD><br />
<td>''Axdite''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|te}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Life</TD><br />
<td>''Fate''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Lion</TD><br />
<td>''Rungarisi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|run}}{{Rune|ga}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|si}}</TD><br />
</tr> <br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Little</TD><br />
<td>''Lenpe''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|len}}{{Rune|pe}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TD>Lizard</TD><br />
<td>''Teigeldi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|ig}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|di}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Mage</td><br />
<td>''Ditanraau''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|tan}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|au}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Man</TD><br />
<td>''Ten''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ten}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Many</TD><br />
<td>''Vega''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|ga}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Mark<br>Rune</td><br />
<td>''Gon''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|gon}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Mixture</TD><br />
<td>''Nauvin''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|vin}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Moon</TD><br />
<td>''Aurafateeltena''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|ten}}{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Mother</TD><br />
<td>''Fateeltena''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|ten}}{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Music</TD><br />
<td>''Peletovita''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|le}}{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|ta}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>One Who Uses<br>One Who Does</TD><br />
<td>''Raau''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|au}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Pain</TD><br />
<td>''Tovetaax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Pegasus</TD><br />
<td>''Viatax Sitadi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|ax}} {{Rune|si}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|di}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Phoenix</TD><br />
<td>''Rengo Viatax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ren}}{{Rune|go}} {{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Plains</TD><br />
<td>''Runga''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|run}}{{Rune|ga}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Planet</TD><br />
<td>''Veus Fael''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|us}} {{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|el}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Plant</td><br />
<td>''Faeljinrale''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Rabbit</td><br />
<td>''Igesto''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ig}}{{Rune|es}}{{Rune|to}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>[[Shireroth]]</TD><br />
<td>''Fael Totajinrale Horgorisa''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|el}} {{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}} {{Rune|hor}}{{Rune|go}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|sa}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Sister</TD><br />
<td>''Lenpetena''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|len}}{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|ten}}{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Sky</TD><br />
<td>''Aura''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ra}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Sound</TD><br />
<td>''Tovita''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|ta}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Spirit</td><br />
<td>''Ditan''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|tan}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Squid</TD><br />
<td>''Axdiruvietpetara''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|ru}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}}{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ra}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<TD>Star</TD><br />
<td>''Lenpe Aurafateelten''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|len}}{{Rune|pe}} {{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|ten}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Tiger</TD><br />
<td>''Totajinralerisi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|si}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Totem</td><br />
<td>''Ditanten''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|tan}}{{Rune|ten}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Unicorn</td><br />
<td>''Axdivijin Sitadi''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|jin}} {{Rune|si}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|di}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Very</td><br />
<td>''Vius''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|us}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Water</TD><br />
<td>''Viet''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Without</td><br />
<td>''Tove''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ve}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Wolf</TD><br />
<td>''Lenpenelig''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|len}}{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|nel}}{{Rune|ig}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Woman</TD><br />
<td>''Tena''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ten}}{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Red</td><br />
<td>''Nauet''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|et}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Orange</td><br />
<td>''Naugo''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|go}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Yellow</td><br />
<td>''Nausa''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|sa}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Green</td><br />
<td>''Naupe''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|pe}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Blue</td><br />
<td>''Nauri''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|ri}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Indigo</td><br />
<td>''Naudi''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|di}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Violet</td><br />
<td>''Nauto''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|to}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Black</td><br />
<td>''Nausi''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|si}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>White</td><br />
<td>''Naure''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|re}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Gray</td><br />
<td>''Naues''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|es}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Brown</td><br />
<td>''Nauru''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|ru}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Rainbow</td><br />
<td>''Naujin''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|jin}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
</table><br />
<br />
=== Special Instances ===<br />
#Though it is given its own character, the "-n-" rune is most frequently attached to the closest vowel. Only in very select instances is it not. In cases where there are two vowels that it could attach to, it attaches left.<br />
#Vowel sounds that are next to each other are pronounced as one letter. Therefore, ''raau'' (one who does), is pronounced "rauw"; similarly, ''taax'' (death) is simply "tax".<br />
#The ending ''-atvila'' is given to any present-tense verb, ''-atvigi'' to any past tense, and ''-atvisa'' to any future tense.<br />
#The "-a" character ( {{Rune|a}} ) is only used on the end of compounds. It is not used at all on verbed words. For instance, a female bird is a ''viataxa''. But the word to fly, whether applied to a male or female, is always ''viataxatvila'' for present tense, ''viataxatvigi'' for past tense, and ''viataxatvisa'' for future tense.<br />
#In most instances, the "hor" sound starts a word. In all instances, "k" ends a word.<br />
#Words are written with breaks at hard sound points. For instance, ''veusrengoteigeldi'' is pronounced and written as one word, while ''viatax sitadi'' is written as two.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Examples of Translated Runes ==<br />
<br />
'''Aurajinrale''' ( {{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}} ) translates literally to "Sky-Gift". It is used to refer to those with [[oracular ability]].<br />
<br />
'''Ditantove''' ( {{Rune|di}}{{Rune|tan}}{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ve}} ) translates literally to "Spiritless" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]].<br />
<br />
The ''Ditantove'' themselves are frightening beasts, created by the [[Empire of Khaz Modan]] to hunt down and destroy rogue mages. The first ''Ditantove'' on the [[Isle of Naudia'Diva]] was sent there to destroy [[Sagittarius]]. It was defeated, and began creating copies of itself. Unfortunately, these copies were inferior and did not have pure intelligence. Rather, they had intelligence with deep primal destructive instincts laced through.<br />
<br />
The ''Ditantove'' also can shapeshift, repair themselves with proper equipment, and change their physical forms basically at will.<br />
<br />
[[image:Fanlesiten.png|right|thumb|200px|A ''Fanlesiten'']]<br />
<br />
The '''fanlesiten''' (plural ''Fanlesitenk''; "mushroom man"; {{Rune|fan}}{{Rune|le}}{{Rune|si}}{{Rune|ten}}{{Rune|k}} ) is a small cousin to [[dryad]]s and other [[faerie]]s. They are the spirits of mushrooms. Standing between a half inch and two inches tall, they look similar to most mushrooms. What sets them apart is the small face on the stalk of the mushroom and the root-like bulbous feet on the base of the stalk.<br />
<br />
They consume salt in any form and emit a nutrient-rich dirt-like substance. [[Hunters of the Stag|Hunters]] use this substance as a fertilizer and sometimes have a family of ''fanlesitenk'' live in their gardens.<br />
<br />
''Fanlesitenk'' are intelligent enough to recognize patterns and use basic logic. They love to sing, especially in imitation, but they have trouble making out specific words and staying on key. They are trainable, however, and after hearing a song three or four times they will never forget it.<br />
<br />
''Fanlesitenk'' have a simple form of communication, consisting mostly of warbles and whistles.<br />
<br />
[[image:scan0031.jpg|thumb|right|Leviatan, depicted by the Hunters of the Stag]]<br />
<br />
'''Leviatan''' (or {{Rune|le}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|aun}} in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]]) is the [[Brookshire|Brookshiran]] [[Divine Census of Cedrism|god of the sea-beasts]]. He (or she; no one has bothered to check, but "he" is the commonly accepted concept of Leviatan) is a gigantic angler-fish and is whispered about in both the tales of the fishermen of [[Benacia]] and the [[Hunters of the Stag]]. Supposedly, he lives in the [[Cosimo Sea]], but this has not been proven.<br />
<br />
It has been rumored that Leviatan uses his angler to lure fishermen away from shore during storms and fog, blinking it on and off in much the same way as a lighthouse. As such, the Hunters of the Stag do not trust lighthouses, and the Benacian fishermen have learned tricks on how to thwart being captured by the "phantom lighthouse."<br />
<br />
For a short while, during the reign of [[Kaiser Raynor II]], when the [[Great Catapult]] had been built and strung with the flesh of [[Kalhamoraes]], the Benacians and the Hunters of the Stag rejoiced for a few short months, believing that Leviatan had been slain. However, with the disappearance of several more adventurous Benacian and Horjinic seacraft, they quickly realized that Leviatan and Kalhamoraes were ''not'' the same entity.<br />
<br />
The Hunters believe that Leviatan [[Transcendence and the Path of Transcendence|transcended]] simply from the amount of belief that the local inhabitants had in him.<br />
<br />
Certain groups of both the Benacians and the Hunters don't so much worship him as fear his awesome power, though there are Hunters who have been known to call upon his spirit for great deeds. [[Notable Hunters#Viataxa|One Hunter]] has even had him as a [[totem]].<br />
<br />
'''Risia''' ( [[Image:Rune-ri.PNG]][[Image:Rune-si.PNG]][[Image:Rune-a.PNG]] ) is unfortunately named, as it literally means "Female Cat" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]]. Naming someone this is akin to naming them "Kitty."<br />
<br />
'''Taaxa''' [[Image:Rune-ta.PNG]][[Image:Rune-ax.PNG]][[Image:Rune-a.PNG]] translates literally to "Female Death" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]]<br />
<br />
'''Peletovitaraaua''' translates literally to "Good Sound Maker Woman", but is more appropriately translated as "Female Musician" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]].<br />
<br />
'''Veusditan''' ( [[Image:Rune-ve.PNG]][[Image:Rune-us.PNG]][[Image:Rune-di.PNG]][[Image:Rune-ta.PNG]][[Image:Rune-n.PNG]] ) translates literally to "Big Spirit" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]].<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Veusfaax''' ( [[image:Rune-ve.PNG]][[image:Rune-us.PNG]][[image:Rune-fa.PNG]][[image:Rune-ax.PNG]] ) translates most closely to "Big Fall" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]], though it is usually used to refer to the gigantic waterfall, known as [[The Spire]] on the [[Isle of Naudia'Diva]].<br />
<br />
[[category:Shireroth]]<br />
[[category:Hunters of the Stag]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Horjinic_(conlang)&diff=10435Horjinic (conlang)2010-12-28T05:09:38Z<p>Tau: moved Horjinic (conlang) to Horjinic language</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[Horjinic language]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Horjinic_language&diff=10434Horjinic language2010-12-28T05:09:38Z<p>Tau: moved Horjinic (conlang) to Horjinic language</p>
<hr />
<div>{{language|name=Horjinic|nativename=Horjingonak<br />
|familycolor=skyblue<br />
|nations=[[Shireroth]]<br />
|region=[[Isle of Naudia'Diva]]<br />
|speakers=1+<br />
|family='''Runic'''<br />
|nation=[[Shireroth]]: [[County]] of [[Naudia'Diva]]<br />
|agency=[[Hunters of the Stag]]}}<br />
The Hunters of the Stag speak a noun-based modular language. That is to say, in order to make a new word, you build new words by mashing together other words. In addition, there are no verbs in the Horjinic language; instead, you take a noun and add a verb ending, thereby making the necessary verb.<br />
<br />
For instance, the word for water is "''viet''" ( {{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}} ). Therefore, to drink water would be said or written as "''vietatvile''" ( {{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|le}} ) -- "''viet''" for water, and the present-tense verb ending "''atvile''". If it were to have drunk water (past tense), the word would instead be "''vietatvigi''" ( {{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|gi}} ); conversely, if it were to drink water (future tense), the word would be "''vietatvisa''" ( {{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|sa}} ).<br />
<br />
=== Runes ===<br />
<TABLE border=1><br />
<TR> <br />
<TH>Rune</TH><br />
<th>Anglicized<Br>Writing</th><br />
<th>Pronunciation</th> <br />
<TH>Old<br>Meaning</th><br />
<th>Modern<br>Meaning</th><br />
<th>Character<br>Origin</th><br />
</TR> <br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
<td>A</td><br />
<td>-Ah</td><br />
<TD>Female</TD> <br />
<td>Female</td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|at}}</td><br />
<td>At</td><br />
<td>Att</td><br />
<td>Peace</td><br />
<td>Water</td><br />
<td>Shaking Hands</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|au}}</td><br />
<td>Au</td><br />
<td>Aouw</td><br />
<td>Shield</td><br />
<td>Shield</td><br />
<td>Shield</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ax}}</td><br />
<td>Ax</td><br />
<td>Acks</td><br />
<td>Life</td><br />
<td>Life</td><br />
<td> </td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|di}}</td><br />
<td>Di</td><br />
<td>Dee</td><br />
<td>Death</td><br />
<td>Death</td><br />
<td> </td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|el}}</td><br />
<td>El</td><br />
<td>Ell</td><br />
<td>Victory</td><br />
<td>Sword</td><br />
<td>Sword</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|er}}</td><br />
<td>Er</td><br />
<td>Err</td><br />
<td>Resilience</td><br />
<td>Earth</td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|es}}</td><br />
<td>Es</td><br />
<td>Ess</td><br />
<td>Wind</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|et}}</td><br />
<td>Et</td><br />
<td>Ehtt</td><br />
<td>Sword</td><br />
<td>Fire</td><br />
<td>Sword</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|fa}}</td><br />
<td>Fa</td><br />
<td>Fah</td><br />
<td>Crops</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Scythe</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ga}}</td><br />
<td>Ga</td><br />
<td>Gah</td><br />
<td>Not</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|gi}}</td><br />
<td>Gi</td><br />
<td>Ghee</td><br />
<td>Strength</td><br />
<td>Air</td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|go}}</td><br />
<td>Go</td><br />
<td>Goh</td><br />
<td>Fire</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|hor}}</td><br />
<td>Hor</td><br />
<td>Hoar</td><br />
<td>Cat</td><br />
<td>Animal</td><br />
<td>Eye</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ig}}</td><br />
<td>Ig</td><br />
<td>Igg</td><br />
<td>Stealth</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|jin}}</td><br />
<td>Jin</td><br />
<td>Jean</td><br />
<td>God</td><br />
<td>God</td><br />
<td>Eye</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|k}}</td><br />
<td>K</td><br />
<td>-Chk</td><br />
<td>Plural</td><br />
<td>Plural</td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|le}}</td><br />
<td>Le</td><br />
<td>Lay</td><br />
<td>Spear</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Trident</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|n}}</td><br />
<td>N</td><br />
<td>-N-</td><br />
<td>Spirit</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|pe}}</td><br />
<td>Pe</td><br />
<td>Pay</td><br />
<td>Plant</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Tree</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ra}}</td><br />
<td>Ra</td><br />
<td>Rah</td><br />
<td>Sky</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|re}}</td><br />
<td>Re</td><br />
<td>Ray</td><br />
<td>Light</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Sun</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ri}}</td><br />
<td>Ri</td><br />
<td>Riee</td><br />
<td>Water</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>River</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ru}}</td><br />
<td>Ru</td><br />
<td>Rooh</td><br />
<td>Earth</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Mountains</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|sa}}</td><br />
<td>Sa</td><br />
<td>Saw</td><br />
<td>Sun</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Sun</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|se}}</td><br />
<td>Se</td><br />
<td>Say</td><br />
<td>Lightning</td><br />
<td>Spear</td><br />
<td>Lightning</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|si}}</td><br />
<td>Si</td><br />
<td>Siee</td><br />
<td>Dark</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ta}}</td><br />
<td>Ta</td><br />
<td>Tah</td><br />
<td>Sound</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|te}}</td><br />
<td>Te</td><br />
<td>Tay</td><br />
<td>Body</td><br />
<td>Man</td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|to}}</td><br />
<td>To</td><br />
<td>Tooh</td><br />
<td>Moon</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td>Moon</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|us}}</td><br />
<td>Us</td><br />
<td>Oose</td><br />
<td>Bow</td><br />
<td>Bow</td><br />
<td>Bow</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|ve}}</td><br />
<td>Ve</td><br />
<td>Vay</td><br />
<td>Less</td><br />
<td></td><br />
<td></td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>{{Rune|vi}}</td><br />
<td>Vi</td><br />
<td>Viee</td><br />
<td>House</td><br />
<td>House</td><br />
<td>Town</td><br />
</tr><br />
</table><br />
<br />
=== Limited Dictionary ===<br />
This is a basic dictionary with commonly accepted words among the Hunters of the Stag.<br />
<br />
<TABLE border=1><br />
<TR> <br />
<TH>English Word</TH><br />
<th>Anglicized Horjinic</th> <br />
<TH>Horjinic Runes</th><br />
</TR><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Air</TD><br />
<td>''Raga''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|ga}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>All</td><br />
<td>''Veto''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|to}}</td><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Angel</TD><br />
<td>''Totajinraleviataxten''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|ten}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Animal</TD><br />
<td>''Petara''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ra}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Arm</TD><br />
<td>''Axdiru''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|ru}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Back</TD><br />
<td>''Axdiel''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|el}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Big</TD><br />
<td>''Veus''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|us}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Bird</TD><br />
<td>''Viatax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Body</TD><br />
<td>''Axdi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Brother</TD><br />
<td>''Lenpeten''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|len}}{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|ten}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Cat</TD><br />
<td>''Risi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|si}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Chimaera</TD><br />
<td>''Petaranauvinraautaax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|vin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Death</TD><br />
<td>''Taax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Demon</TD><br />
<td>''Raautaax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Destruction</TD><br />
<td>''Taaxri''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|ri}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Divine</TD><br />
<td>''Totajinrale''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Dragon</TD><br />
<td>''Veusrengoteigeldi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|us}}{{Rune|ren}}{{Rune|go}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|ig}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|di}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Earth</TD><br />
<td>''Fael''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|el}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Father</TD><br />
<td>''Fateelten''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|ten}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Fertility</TD><br />
<td>''Fateel''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|el}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Fire</TD><br />
<td>''Rengo''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ren}}{{Rune|go}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Foot</TD><br />
<td>''Axditesa''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|sa}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Gem</td><br />
<td>''Pelefael''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|le}}{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|el}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Gift</TD><br />
<td>''Jinrale''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>God</TD><br />
<td>''Tota''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Good</TD><br />
<td>''Pele''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|le}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Griffin</TD><br />
<td>''Rungarisiviatax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|run}}{{Rune|ga}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|si}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Hair</TD><br />
<td>''Axdivisa''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|sa}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Head</td><br />
<td>''Axdivi''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|vi}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Horn</td><br />
<td>''Axdivijin''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|jin}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Horse</TD><br />
<td>''Sitadi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|si}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|di}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Hunt</td><br />
<td>''Regigo''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|re}}{{Rune|gi}}{{Rune|go}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Insect</TD><br />
<td>''Igfanpe''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ig}}{{Rune|fan}}{{Rune|pe}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Island</TD><br />
<td>''Divea''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>[[Jackalope]]</td><br />
<td>''Axdivijink Igesto''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|k}} {{Rune|ig}}{{Rune|es}}{{Rune|to}}<br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>[[Kaiser]]</TD><br />
<td>''Totajinrale Horgorisa''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}} {{Rune|hor}}{{Rune|go}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|sa}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Leader</TD><br />
<td>''Horgorisa''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|hor}}{{Rune|go}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|sa}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Leg</TD><br />
<td>''Axdite''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|te}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Life</TD><br />
<td>''Fate''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Lion</TD><br />
<td>''Rungarisi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|run}}{{Rune|ga}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|si}}</TD><br />
</tr> <br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Little</TD><br />
<td>''Lenpe''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|len}}{{Rune|pe}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TD>Lizard</TD><br />
<td>''Teigeldi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|ig}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|di}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Mage</td><br />
<td>''Ditanraau''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|tan}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|au}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Man</TD><br />
<td>''Ten''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ten}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Many</TD><br />
<td>''Vega''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|ga}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Mark<br>Rune</td><br />
<td>''Gon''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|gon}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Mixture</TD><br />
<td>''Nauvin''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|vin}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Moon</TD><br />
<td>''Aurafateeltena''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|ten}}{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Mother</TD><br />
<td>''Fateeltena''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|ten}}{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Music</TD><br />
<td>''Peletovita''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|le}}{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|ta}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>One Who Uses<br>One Who Does</TD><br />
<td>''Raau''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|au}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Pain</TD><br />
<td>''Tovetaax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Pegasus</TD><br />
<td>''Viatax Sitadi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|ax}} {{Rune|si}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|di}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Phoenix</TD><br />
<td>''Rengo Viatax''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ren}}{{Rune|go}} {{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|ax}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Plains</TD><br />
<td>''Runga''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|run}}{{Rune|ga}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Planet</TD><br />
<td>''Veus Fael''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ve}}{{Rune|us}} {{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|el}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Plant</td><br />
<td>''Faeljinrale''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Rabbit</td><br />
<td>''Igesto''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ig}}{{Rune|es}}{{Rune|to}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>[[Shireroth]]</TD><br />
<td>''Fael Totajinrale Horgorisa''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|el}} {{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}} {{Rune|hor}}{{Rune|go}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|sa}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Sister</TD><br />
<td>''Lenpetena''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|len}}{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|ten}}{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Sky</TD><br />
<td>''Aura''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ra}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Sound</TD><br />
<td>''Tovita''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|ta}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Spirit</td><br />
<td>''Ditan''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|tan}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Squid</TD><br />
<td>''Axdiruvietpetara''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|ru}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}}{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|ra}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<TD>Star</TD><br />
<td>''Lenpe Aurafateelten''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|len}}{{Rune|pe}} {{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|fa}}{{Rune|te}}{{Rune|el}}{{Rune|ten}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Tiger</TD><br />
<td>''Totajinralerisi''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}}{{Rune|ri}}{{Rune|si}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Totem</td><br />
<td>''Ditanten''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|tan}}{{Rune|ten}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Unicorn</td><br />
<td>''Axdivijin Sitadi''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|ax}}{{Rune|di}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|jin}} {{Rune|si}}{{Rune|ta}}{{Rune|di}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Very</td><br />
<td>''Vius''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|us}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Water</TD><br />
<td>''Viet''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|et}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Without</td><br />
<td>''Tove''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ve}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Wolf</TD><br />
<td>''Lenpenelig''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|len}}{{Rune|pe}}{{Rune|nel}}{{Rune|ig}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<TR> <br />
<TD>Woman</TD><br />
<td>''Tena''</td><br />
<TD>{{Rune|ten}}{{Rune|a}}</TD><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Red</td><br />
<td>''Nauet''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|et}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Orange</td><br />
<td>''Naugo''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|go}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Yellow</td><br />
<td>''Nausa''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|sa}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Green</td><br />
<td>''Naupe''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|pe}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Blue</td><br />
<td>''Nauri''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|ri}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Indigo</td><br />
<td>''Naudi''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|di}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Violet</td><br />
<td>''Nauto''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|to}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Black</td><br />
<td>''Nausi''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|si}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>White</td><br />
<td>''Naure''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|re}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Gray</td><br />
<td>''Naues''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|es}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Brown</td><br />
<td>''Nauru''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|ru}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
<tr><br />
<td>Rainbow</td><br />
<td>''Naujin''</td><br />
<td>{{Rune|nau}}{{Rune|jin}}</td><br />
</tr><br />
</table><br />
<br />
=== Special Instances ===<br />
#Though it is given its own character, the "-n-" rune is most frequently attached to the closest vowel. Only in very select instances is it not. In cases where there are two vowels that it could attach to, it attaches left.<br />
#Vowel sounds that are next to each other are pronounced as one letter. Therefore, ''raau'' (one who does), is pronounced "rauw"; similarly, ''taax'' (death) is simply "tax".<br />
#The ending ''-atvila'' is given to any present-tense verb, ''-atvigi'' to any past tense, and ''-atvisa'' to any future tense.<br />
#The "-a" character ( {{Rune|a}} ) is only used on the end of compounds. It is not used at all on verbed words. For instance, a female bird is a ''viataxa''. But the word to fly, whether applied to a male or female, is always ''viataxatvila'' for present tense, ''viataxatvigi'' for past tense, and ''viataxatvisa'' for future tense.<br />
#In most instances, the "hor" sound starts a word. In all instances, "k" ends a word.<br />
#Words are written with breaks at hard sound points. For instance, ''veusrengoteigeldi'' is pronounced and written as one word, while ''viatax sitadi'' is written as two.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Examples of Translated Runes ==<br />
<br />
'''Aurajinrale''' ( {{Rune|au}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|jin}}{{Rune|ra}}{{Rune|le}} ) translates literally to "Sky-Gift". It is used to refer to those with [[oracular ability]].<br />
<br />
'''Ditantove''' ( {{Rune|di}}{{Rune|tan}}{{Rune|to}}{{Rune|ve}} ) translates literally to "Spiritless" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]].<br />
<br />
The ''Ditantove'' themselves are frightening beasts, created by the [[Empire of Khaz Modan]] to hunt down and destroy rogue mages. The first ''Ditantove'' on the [[Isle of Naudia'Diva]] was sent there to destroy [[Sagittarius]]. It was defeated, and began creating copies of itself. Unfortunately, these copies were inferior and did not have pure intelligence. Rather, they had intelligence with deep primal destructive instincts laced through.<br />
<br />
The ''Ditantove'' also can shapeshift, repair themselves with proper equipment, and change their physical forms basically at will.<br />
<br />
[[image:Fanlesiten.png|right|thumb|200px|A ''Fanlesiten'']]<br />
<br />
The '''fanlesiten''' (plural ''Fanlesitenk''; "mushroom man"; {{Rune|fan}}{{Rune|le}}{{Rune|si}}{{Rune|ten}}{{Rune|k}} ) is a small cousin to [[dryad]]s and other [[faerie]]s. They are the spirits of mushrooms. Standing between a half inch and two inches tall, they look similar to most mushrooms. What sets them apart is the small face on the stalk of the mushroom and the root-like bulbous feet on the base of the stalk.<br />
<br />
They consume salt in any form and emit a nutrient-rich dirt-like substance. [[Hunters of the Stag|Hunters]] use this substance as a fertilizer and sometimes have a family of ''fanlesitenk'' live in their gardens.<br />
<br />
''Fanlesitenk'' are intelligent enough to recognize patterns and use basic logic. They love to sing, especially in imitation, but they have trouble making out specific words and staying on key. They are trainable, however, and after hearing a song three or four times they will never forget it.<br />
<br />
''Fanlesitenk'' have a simple form of communication, consisting mostly of warbles and whistles.<br />
<br />
[[image:scan0031.jpg|thumb|right|Leviatan, depicted by the Hunters of the Stag]]<br />
<br />
'''Leviatan''' (or {{Rune|le}}{{Rune|vi}}{{Rune|at}}{{Rune|aun}} in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]]) is the [[Brookshire|Brookshiran]] [[Divine Census of Cedrism|god of the sea-beasts]]. He (or she; no one has bothered to check, but "he" is the commonly accepted concept of Leviatan) is a gigantic angler-fish and is whispered about in both the tales of the fishermen of [[Benacia]] and the [[Hunters of the Stag]]. Supposedly, he lives in the [[Cosimo Sea]], but this has not been proven.<br />
<br />
It has been rumored that Leviatan uses his angler to lure fishermen away from shore during storms and fog, blinking it on and off in much the same way as a lighthouse. As such, the Hunters of the Stag do not trust lighthouses, and the Benacian fishermen have learned tricks on how to thwart being captured by the "phantom lighthouse."<br />
<br />
For a short while, during the reign of [[Kaiser Raynor II]], when the [[Great Catapult]] had been built and strung with the flesh of [[Kalhamoraes]], the Benacians and the Hunters of the Stag rejoiced for a few short months, believing that Leviatan had been slain. However, with the disappearance of several more adventurous Benacian and Horjinic seacraft, they quickly realized that Leviatan and Kalhamoraes were ''not'' the same entity.<br />
<br />
The Hunters believe that Leviatan [[Transcendence and the Path of Transcendence|transcended]] simply from the amount of belief that the local inhabitants had in him.<br />
<br />
Certain groups of both the Benacians and the Hunters don't so much worship him as fear his awesome power, though there are Hunters who have been known to call upon his spirit for great deeds. [[Notable Hunters#Viataxa|One Hunter]] has even had him as a [[totem]].<br />
<br />
'''Risia''' ( [[Image:Rune-ri.PNG]][[Image:Rune-si.PNG]][[Image:Rune-a.PNG]] ) is unfortunately named, as it literally means "Female Cat" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]]. Naming someone this is akin to naming them "Kitty."<br />
<br />
'''Taaxa''' [[Image:Rune-ta.PNG]][[Image:Rune-ax.PNG]][[Image:Rune-a.PNG]] translates literally to "Female Death" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]]<br />
<br />
'''Peletovitaraaua''' translates literally to "Good Sound Maker Woman", but is more appropriately translated as "Female Musician" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]].<br />
<br />
'''Veusditan''' ( [[Image:Rune-ve.PNG]][[Image:Rune-us.PNG]][[Image:Rune-di.PNG]][[Image:Rune-ta.PNG]][[Image:Rune-n.PNG]] ) translates literally to "Big Spirit" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]].<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Veusfaax''' ( [[image:Rune-ve.PNG]][[image:Rune-us.PNG]][[image:Rune-fa.PNG]][[image:Rune-ax.PNG]] ) translates most closely to "Big Fall" in [[Hunters of the Stag#Language|Horjinic]], though it is usually used to refer to the gigantic waterfall, known as [[The Spire]] on the [[Isle of Naudia'Diva]].<br />
<br />
[[category:Shireroth]]<br />
[[category:Hunters of the Stag]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Proto-Lakhesian_language&diff=10433Proto-Lakhesian language2010-12-28T05:07:46Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Proto-Lakhesian<br />
| nativename=<br />
| pronunciation= {{IPA|}}<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]], [[Antica]]<br />
| region= [[Lakhesis]], [[Samudra]]<br />
| speakers= None (extinct)<br />
| familycolor= yellow<br />
| fam1= Lakhesian<br />
| script=<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= plk<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Proto-Lakhesian''' is the ancestral language to Modern Lakhesian spoken in [[Amarr]] and the Nation of [[Lakhesis]] in Shireroth, as well as Samudran spoken in [[Antica]]. Most scolars agree that the language is a remnant from the people that inhabited the area before the tribes that would later make up the classes that founded Shireroth came to the area. Some believe, but most serious linguists disagree, that the Lakhesians and their langauge are a direct descendant from the people of the Khaz Modan empire.<br><br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_cons.png]]<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_vowels.png]]<br />
<br />
=Syllable structure=<br />
The syllable structure is CV, where C is a consonant and V vowel.<br><br />
<br />
=Stress=<br />
Lakhesian has gentle stress on the first syllable, similar to Hungarian. In loanwords, however, the stress is often inherited from the source language and indicated with an accent.<br><br />
<br />
=Transliteration=<br />
a, i, o, u, sh(=ʃ), f, h, j, k, l, ll, m, n, ng, p, s, t, w, '. The final letter, the apostrophe, represents the glottal stop. Palatalization is indicated by a trema on the following vowel, like this: "kapï".<br><br />
<br />
=Nouns=<br />
<br />
==Declension==<br />
Lakhesian nouns decline to show case, number and animacy. Nouns are divided into two noun classes; animate and inanimate. Usually things that are percieved to be alive are classed as animate, and dead things as inanimate, although this is often varied due to cultural and traditional reasons. There are no definite or indefinite articles. The basic word order is VSO, verb-subject-object, although due to the case system this order is pretty free.<br />
<br />
=Verbs=<br />
Lakhesian verbs are inflected to show aspect, evidentiality, mood and polarity (ambiguous). This class of words is rather large due to the fact that adjectives, for all intents and purposes, are treated as verbs.<br />
<br />
=Language family=<br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_langs.png]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Brookshire]]<br />
[[Category:Lakhesis]]<br />
[[Category:Culture]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Yardistani_language&diff=10432Yardistani language2010-12-28T05:07:17Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Yardistani<br />
| nativename= ''Iardîstato''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|jɑrdiˈstato|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= [[Yardistan]]<br />
| speakers= Unknown<br />
| familycolor= gold<br />
| fam1= Iardic<br />
| fam2= Insular<br />
| fam3= Inner<br />
| script= Latin (Yardistani variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= yrd<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Yardistani''' is the fictional native language of the people of [[Yardistan]]. In real life, it is actually a [[Constructed language | conlang]] developed by [[Gryphon Avocatio]].<br />
<br />
Yardistani is primarily based on Spanish vocabulary and grammar, but its pronunciation and spelling are more based on Germanic languages. It also has several influences from English, Swedish, and Japanese. Before it was adopted for use in micronations, Gryphon created the language to have a certain aesthetic value in his mind. Consequently,<br />
it looks rather peculiar. <br />
<br />
According to his fictional history for the language, Gryphon says that the language is derived from a trade pidgin, combining elements of a now-lost native language with Spanish and, to a lesser extent, Swedish from far-off traders. <br />
<br />
Also evolving from that long-lost language is [[Rantsilastani]], spoken in the territory of [[Rantsilastan]] in the south-east of the [[Isle of Yardistan]]. The only actual speaker of the language is [[Gryphon Avocatio]]. He has been working on the language intermittently for over eight years.<br />
<br />
This introduction is translated into Yardistani below.<br />
----<br />
'''Iardîstato''' ne Idiomr nativix fiktix du Hêntrsa [[Yardistan|dIardista]]. Nja Vidr verdix, ljo ne aktualís Idiomr konxtrutejix kju ne formaj par [[Gryphon Avocatio|Grifon Avocatio]].<br />
<br />
Iardîstato ne basaj primís nja Vokablulari ce Gramatikr Spanjâtix, ye ljona Habašavegr cOrþaši ne basaj maís nja Idiômrsa Jermanix. Habe Influênsrsa multix dÂngloto, du Svêriyeto, ce du Nihonto. Antís du ljo neja adoptaj par Usr nja Micronâtrsa, Grifon creaja ljo Idiomr par habejj Valihr aasþetix xpesifix nje Mêntrlo. Konsegešís, apara<br />
peculiarix.<br />
<br />
Akordaši nja Hixtoraat fiktix du Idiomr, Grifon haba kju Idiomr ne derivajix du ''Pidjin'' du Komersr, kombinaši Elemêntrsa du Idiomrsa nativix hrís-perdix kjan Spanjâtix ce, njExtentr maís-menix, Svêriyeto<br />
af Komêrsamajsa du Landsa leyix. <br />
<br />
Tam evolveši af oya Idiomr perdix ne [[Rantsilastani|Rantsilâstato]], habaj nje Tera du [[Rantsilastan|Rantsilasta]] njOrd sordix du [[Isle of Yardistan|Islr du Iardista]]. Habamaj aktualix solix du Idiomr ne [[Gryphon Avocatio|Grifon Avocatio]]. Le habe nej scribaši ljo Idiomr par maís kju novi ânrsa.<br />
<br />
==Yardistani Pronunciation==<br />
Yardistani is in some ways difficult to pronounce. There are a number of consonant sounds that occur in the language that sound very similar and that do not occur in the English language (including retroflex and palatal fricatives). There is also, in several cases, more than one way to spell several consonant sounds, but generally any group of letters can only be pronounced one way; for instance, the combination 'sk' and 'xk' are both pronounced [sk], and 'š' and 'sj' are both pronounced as [ʃ] (the 'sh' sound in English).<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Yardistani vowels follow the conventions of a continental language, with some variation in precise quality based on stress and position in a word. The real exception to this is 'u' which can have three pronunciations with no distinction indicated in the orthography. For instance, in the word <siu> ''city'', it is pronounced [u] (as in English ''rude''); in 'su' and 'ku' ''yes'' and ''no'', it is pronounced [ʊ] (as in ''put''), and in 'du' ''of'', it is pronounced [ɨ] (think Californian ''dude!'').<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Alphabets===<br />
The Yardistani Alphabet comprises 27 letters:<br />
<br />
A B C D E F G H I Í J K L M N O P R S Š T U V X Y Z Þ<br />
<br />
There are some variations on this; for instance, some dialects use 'æ' instead of 'aa' in words like 'hixtoraat/historæt', but this is very uncommon. In some older texts, 'š' is printed as 'ж' (an 'x' with a vertical bar through it), such that words like 'talaši' would instead be 'talaжi'. This convention has been abandoned, but can occasionally be seen in older texts. Also, it is not uncommon to see '-jj' handwritten as a single 'j' with an accute accent; however, no such character exists in Unicode.<br />
<br />
Circumflex accents are written over vowels to show stress when words do not follow the normal prosodic rules of the language. This can happen for a number of reasons: the word may have a different stress pattern phonemically, suffixes may have altered the number of syllables a word has, or the word is a loan. The letters I and Í are considered separate.<br />
<br />
The alphabet also lacks characters found in the English alphabet, namely 'Q' and 'W'. These letters do not occur in Yardistani. The language opts to adapt loan words to the native orthography. Thus, if names such as 'Enrique' and 'William' were to be loaned into the language, one would expect them to be spelt 'Enrike' and 'Uiljam' or 'Uiljamr'. Of course, as the latter is not loaned into the language, it would still be written as in English. Othe exceptions include scientific names, like 'W-bosonr'.<br />
<br />
Yardistani also has its own script, '''Yômato''' (lit. 'reading language'). It is derived heavily from Greek, though it has its own, purely Yardistani influence. A font is known to exist. [[image:iardia.png|thumb|right|A sign one might see at a Yardistani port or airport. It reads "Welcome to Yardistan. If you have imports to declare, please go to the left."]]<br />
<br />
Yardistani can also be written in runes, which is most common in the north-east of the island.<br />
<br />
===Spelling===<br />
Spelling in Yardistani can sometimes be anomalous, as mentioned above. Most letters have only one pronunciation. The ones that are pronounced vastly differently than they are in English are listed below:<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
*'''C'''<br />
**[tʃ], as the 'ch' in English 'chair'. This is '''always''' the pronunciations.<br />
*'''J'''<br />
**[ʒ], as the 'si' in 'fusion', but only at the beginning of words<br />
**[j], as the 'y' in 'yes', directly after or before consonants<br />
**[dʒ], as in the 'j' in 'judge' elsewhere.<br />
*'''R'''<br />
**This letter is the most complicated in the language. Some hard, fast rules are that it is always a flapped [ɾ] at the beginnings of words and between vowels, but at the end of words it can be more complex.<br />
*'''Š'''<br />
**[ʃ], as the 'sh' in Shireroth.<br />
*'''X'''<br />
**[z], as the 'x' in 'xerograph', at the beginnins of words<br />
**[s], like the 's' in 'start', before voiceless consonants (see below)<br />
**[ks], as the 'x' in 'fix', elsewhere.<br />
*'''Y'''<br />
**[ʝ]. There exists no equivalent sound in English. It can be approximated by making the vowel in the English word 'be' and pushing the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth until there is vibration. It sounds very similar to [j] and [ʒ] and should not be confused.<br />
*'''Þ'''<br />
**[θ], as the 'th' in 'thank', but '''never''' the 'th' in 'that'.<br />
<br />
====Consonant Combinations====<br />
There are many orthographic consonant clusters in Yardistani that have less-than-obvious phonetic correspondences:<br />
<br />
*CJ - [ç], roughly the 'h' in an emphatic English 'huge'<br />
*DJ - [dʒ], usually only at the beginnings of words<br />
*GR - [ʀ], no English equivalent. Basically the 'r'-sound of French and some German dialects. <br />
*HR - [ʂ], no standard English equivalent. Produced by curling the tongue back slightly whilst making an 's'-sound<br />
*JJ - [ʒ]<br />
*KJ - [dʒ]<br />
*SJ - [ʃ]<br />
*ŠJ - [ʒ]<br />
*XK, XT, XP - These are the prefered ways of spelling the sounds [sk], [st], and [sp], respectively. 's' can generally be used in place of 'x'; for instance 'Hixtoraat' vs. 'Historaat' ''History''. However, some words are usually spelt with an 's', like 'Iardîstato' (compared with the less common 'Iardîxtato').<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
Vowels are virtually all pronounced differently than they are in most English dialects. The pronunciation guides given below are for General American English.<br />
<br />
* '''A'''<br />
** [ɑ], as the 'o' in 'pot', when stressed and before 'r'<br />
** [a] elsewhere, though it can reduce to [ə], especially at the ends of words.<br />
* '''E'''<br />
** [e], as the 'a' in 'fate', before 'r' and word-finally (thought not in some short words like 'ne' and 'ye')<br />
** [ɛ], as 'e' in 'met', elsewhere.<br />
*'''I''' <br />
** [ɪ], as the 'i' in 'bit'<br />
** [j], as the 'y' in 'yes', before vowels; <br />
** [i], as the 'ee' in 'beet', word finally.<br />
*'''Í'''<br />
** [i], as the 'ee' in 'beet'. '''Never''' [ɪ]<br />
*'''O''' <br />
** [ɔ], as the 'au' in East-coast English 'caught'<br />
** [o], as the 'oa' in 'boat', word-finally.<br />
*'''U'''<br />
** [ʊ]<br />
** [ɨ]<br />
** [u]<br />
<br />
*'''AA''' <br />
** [æ], as the 'a' in 'cat'.<br />
*'''AE''', '''AI''', '''AJ''' (before a consonant)<br />
**[aɪ], as the word 'I' in English. This is the only non-loned diphthong in the language.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
There are a number of phonological processes at work in Yardistani. Some are described below.<br />
<br />
===Consonant Phonemes===<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align:center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! &nbsp;<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental <br />
! Alveolar <br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| t d<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| kg<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| n<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| r<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| (ʀ)<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! Tap<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| (ɾ)<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| f v<br />
| θ <br />
| s z<br />
| ʃ ʒ<br />
| ʂ<br />
| ç ʝ<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| (ɹ)<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| j<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| l<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The sounds in brackets, [ɾ], [ɹ] and [ʀ], are likely all surface representations of the phoneme /r/. That means they are not phonemes themselves, but as they are quite common sounds in the language it is useful to show them in the distribution. The actual sound [r] only occurs as an emphatic variation of [ɾ].<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
Yardistani has nine vowel phonemes (that is, contrasting vowel sounds). There is a three-way height distinction at the phonemic level, as well as a tense/lax distinction for high vowels. It is unclear whether schwa (the mid-central vowel) is in fact phonemic. Likewise, the high back vowels, which show considerable variation, may be analysable in another manner.<br />
<br />
Note too that there are a number of allophones not shown here. As the pronunciation section above shows, many vowels have pronunciations that vary based on environment.<br />
<br />
[[image:vokalrsaiardix.png]]<br />
<br />
===Phonological Rules===<br />
There are a number of rules that affect pronunciation of the languange.<br />
<br />
The vocalic phonemes /ɪ/ and /u/ become semivowels [j] and [w], respectively, before vowels.<br />
<br />
When /r/ directly precedes /s/ in a word, both segments become retroflex so that they are pronounced [ɻʂ].<br />
<br />
Word-finally, /r/ can devoice, becoming a voiceless trill [r˳]. Between two consonants, it becomes syllabic [ɹ].<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Yardistani syntax is for the most part straightforward. It is left-headed, and most often sentences are in the Subject-Verb-Object ('''SVO''') order, just like English. However, Yardistani shows considerably more variation. Despite being undeclined, the language has relatively free word order, especially where pronouns are in use. The following two sentences are equivalent:<br />
<br />
*Je Di sabi.<br />
*Sabi Je Di<br />
*Je sabi Di.<br />
*Di sabi Je.<br />
<br />
All four mean "I don't know you". They are SOV, VSO, SVO, an OSV, the last being rare. The free movement here is partially due to the fact that Yardistani personal pronouns have both nominative and oblique forms, thus making the subject and object of a verb discernable.<br />
<br />
Yardistani is also a PRO-drop language, meaning that the language does not require all of its sentences to have overt subjects. However, Yardistani verbs do not conjugate for person, so it is common not to drop subjects unless it is clearly understood:<br />
<br />
*Je kere vejj, ye podi. ''I want to go, but (I) cannot.''<br />
<br />
A few verbs, like 'dajj' (which in its subjectless instances translates as 'there is/are'), do not take subjects at all.<br />
<br />
*'''Da''' trivi Majnsa nje Mrki. '''''There are''''' ''three people in the house''.<br />
<br />
<br />
There are many other differences between Yardistani and English:<br />
<br />
*Adjectives must '''always''' follow nouns.<br />
**Tâlrsa '''grandix''' ne veneši. - '''''Big''' changes are coming.''<br />
<br />
*Prepositions cannot be stranded. <br />
**¿'''Nja''' Kye daja De oyo? - ''Whom did you give this '''to'''?'' (lit. '''''To''' whom''...)<br />
<br />
*Yardistani has a tendency towards what is called verb-second word order. This basically means that when there are adverbs in sentences, the verb likes to let the adverbs precede it and to let the subject come afterwards.<br />
**¡Hrís '''sabe''' Je! - ''Now I '''know'''!''<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
Morphologically, Yardistani is fairly simple. Independent morphemes (or words, for the sake of this discussion) generally take suffixes when they undergo morphological processes, though there are a handful of prefixes as well. The place where morphology is most important is in the conjugation of verbs, but now declension is equally important. Below is an overview of the most important processes in the language.<br />
<br />
===Verb Conjugation===<br />
Verbs in Yardistani come in two classes, those ending in '-ajj' and those ending in '-ejj'. By and large, '-ajj' verbs are the more common. The conjugations of each of these verb types is normalized--there are no irregulars in the language.<br />
<br />
Yardistani verbs conjugate for tense and polarity (whether the sentence is affirmative or negative), and, in some cases, mood. Unlike many western languages, they do not conjugate for person or number. That means that for any given subject, be it 'John', 'We', or 'you', the verb form will be the same assuming the tense, the mood, and the polarity are not different.<br />
<br />
====Indicative====<br />
Below are charts for the most common indicative verb forms in Yardistani. Used in each example are the verbs 'habajj' ''to speak'' and 'sabejj' ''to know''.<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align:center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"<br />
! Conjugation<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Infinitive<br />
| habajj<br />
| habôjj*<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
| haba<br />
| habo<br />
|-<br />
! Preterite<br />
| habaja<br />
| habajo<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
| habaje<br />
| habaji<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align:center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"<br />
! Conjugation<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Infinitive<br />
| sabejj<br />
| sabîjj*<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
| sabe<br />
| sabi<br />
|-<br />
! Preterite<br />
| sabeja<br />
| sabejo<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
| sabeje<br />
| sabeji<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The negative infinitives are forms that only appear in the spoken language and are generally not found in writing. For instance, a person might say 'Je kere sabîjj' ''I don't want to know'' (or literally, ''I want to not know''), but in writing, it is considered more correct to write 'Je keri sabejj'.<br />
<br />
The indicative conjugations follow a regular pattern when it comes to polarity: those ending in 'a' or 'e' are positive, those ending in 'o' or 'i' are negative.<br />
<br />
There are other tenses as well. This includes the imperfect with the ending '-Vjja' for positive and '-Vjjo' for negative (where 'V' stands for either vowel 'a' or 'e'). Use of the tense is generally restricted to very formal speech and writing, and is usually replaced with the the preterite in informal registers. Even rarer is the habitual past (which is really a grammatical aspect and not a tense) indicated with '-Vša/o'. This only occurs in literary style and is quite archaic; for instance 'Le habaša kjan Mâtrlo kado Dihr' ''He spoke with his mother every day'' (implying he had done this for a long time and may still).<br />
<br />
Yardistani also has perfect variations of all of its tenses, formed with the verb 'tenejj' followed by the main verb in the past participle form; for instance, 'Le Ji tene habaj' ''She has spoken to me''.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Yardistani has two ways of expressing the imperative (that is, to give commands). The more formal way of doing so is with the particle 'kju' preceding the verb conjugated in the present indicative:<br />
<br />
*Kju habo kjan Ji. - ''Don't talk to me.''<br />
*Kju ayua Jôlosa. - ''Help your friends.''.<br />
<br />
The subject can sometimes be included to help differentiate between who is being commanded:<br />
<br />
*Kju De ve nja Tendr. - ''Go (you) to the store.''<br />
*Kju Jitesa ve nja Tendr. - ''Let's go to the store.''<br />
<br />
It's also not uncommon to use the imperative to express hopes or wishes about a subject who is not present, and to use it with stative verbs in certain contexts. For instance, a Yardistani speaker might say 'Kju Talr vene hrís' to mean ''I hope Talr comes now'' or ''May Talr come now'', though it might literally be translated as something like ''Come now, Talr''. Likewise, the imperative is sometimes used with verbs that can't normally be commanded; for instance, somebody might say to another 'Kju sabe Ângloto' (lit. ''Know English'') to indicate that they hope a person learns English successfully. These usages overlap in many ways with the subjunctive mood of other languages, but they are distinct in Yardistani. This is partially because the subjunctive is falling out of use and also because of certain syntactic limitations on the subjunctive itself (which will be discussed below).<br />
<br />
'Kju' is not the only particle that can be used to indicate the imperative--'plaat' can also be used. Considered to be much more formal and polite, it is generally translated as ''please''; for instance, 'Plaat ayua Jôlosa' ''Please help your friends.''<br />
<br />
There is a much less formal way of forming an imperative in Yardistani, and that is by simply using the verb root. For instance, 'habajj' becomes '¡Hab!. In single syllable verbs, like 'vejj' ''to go'', the vowel is preposed, such that we get '¡'''Ev''' De nja Tendr' ''Go to the store!''. Commands of this type are almost always written with exclamation marks. These commands are also considered to be less respectful and even rude when used in certain contexts, but they also convey a sense of urgency. They do not conjugate for polarity, so the particle 'ku' (sometimes 'kuu'), meaning 'no', is inserted after the verb; for instance '¡Hab ku kjan Le!' ''Don't talk to her!''<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive====<br />
The Yardistani subjunctive, like the imperfect and the habitual, is generally only seen in formal writing. It is used to indicate a state of affairs that is not or may not be the case. For instance:<br />
<br />
*Je kere kju Fjedr sabeju. - ''I don't want Fjedr to know''<br />
*Le'xpere kju habajr De kjan Talr. - ''She hopes that you speak with Talr''.<br />
<br />
Subjunctive conjugations are distinguishable by their endings--'aa' in place of 'a/e' for positives, and 'u' in place of 'o/i' for negatives. The forms are slightly different:<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align:center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! Conjugation<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
| -Vjr<br />
| -Vju<br />
|-<br />
! Past<br />
| -Vcjr<br />
| -Vcju<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The past subjunctive covers the preterite, imperfect, and habitual. There is no form for the future.<br />
<br />
===Noun Morphology===<br />
Nouns in Yardistani do not undergo a great number of processes. There is no gender and there are no case distinctions except in the personal pronouns, discussed below.<br />
<br />
====Nouns Derived from Verbs====<br />
Many nouns are derived directly from verbs, identifiable by their suffixes. For instance, compare these forms derived from the verb 'habajj' ''to speak'':<br />
<br />
* 'Habr' - speech in general, the concept of speaking<br />
** Linguîxtamajsa pensa kju Habr ne interesantix. ''Linguists think that speech is interesting.''<br />
* 'Habo' - Something spoken, a speech or address<br />
** Je sabe Hâbolo. ''I know what he said.'' (lit. ''I know his speech.'')<br />
* 'Hâbamaj' - A speaker, somebody who is/was speaking<br />
** Je gustaja Hâbamaj. ''I liked the speaker''<br />
<br />
====Plural and Possessive Suffixes====<br />
Yardistani marks plurals by attaching the suffix '-sa' to the ends of nouns:<br />
<br />
* Katr ''cat'' + -sa = Kâtrsa ''cats''<br />
<br />
Yardistani also uses suffixes to indicate possession. There is a suffix for each grammatical person:<br />
<br />
* First person uses the suffix '''-jo'''<br />
** Katr + -jo = Kâtrjo ''my/our cat''<br />
* Second person uses '''-do'''<br />
** Katr + -do = Kâtrdo ''your cat''<br />
* Third person uses '''-lo'''<br />
** Katr + -lo = Kâtrlo ''his/her/its/their cat''<br />
<br />
As you can see, there is no distinction in number in these suffixes and the meaning must be gleaned from context.<br />
<br />
The order of the plural and possessive suffixes is unimportant. This means that 'Kâtrsalo' is equivalent to 'Kâtrlosa'.<br />
<br />
Yardistani also has a genitive suffix '-na'. This suffix comes last, and functions much in the same way that '-'s' does in English:<br />
<br />
*Tâlrna libr - ''Talr's book''<br />
*Mâtrdona jojo - ''Your mother's friend.'' <br />
*Kâtrsalona Matr - ''His cats' mother''<br />
<br />
It is also very common to use the preposition 'du' to form these same phrases; for instance 'Matr du Kâtrsalo' means ''the mother of his cats''.<br />
<br />
====Personal Pronouns====<br />
Yardistani distinguishes four persons: first, dual, second, and third. Their forms are below:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"<br />
!rowspan="2" |Person<br />
!colspan="2" |Singular<br />
!colspan="2" |Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Oblique<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Oblique<br />
|-<br />
! 1st<br />
| Je<br />
| Ji<br />
| Jesa<br />
| Jisa<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| style="background:#999999;" | &nbsp;<br />
| Jitesa<br />
| style="background:#999999;" | &nbsp;<br />
| Jitesa<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd<br />
| De<br />
| Di<br />
| Desa<br />
| Disa<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd<br />
| Le<br />
| Li<br />
| Lesa<br />
| Lisa<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The dual person is used when talking about oneself (or the group the speaker belongs to) and the person or people the speaker is speaking to. Thus, it is inherently plural and has no singular forms.<br />
<br />
The nominative forms are used in subject positions of sentences. The oblique is used as the object of verbs or prepositions.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives and Adverbs===<br />
All adjectives in Yardistani end in '-ix'; for instance 'yahix' ''cold'' or 'nalix' ''white''. There is no agreement between the adjective and the nouns they modify, so the form is always the same. Thus there is no difference in the adjectives 'libr nehix' for ''new book' and 'lîbrsa nehix' for ''new books''.<br />
<br />
Adverbs end in '-ís' and generally have the same roots as Adjectives. Thus 'nehís' means ''newly'' where 'nehix' means 'new'. <br />
<br />
==Yardistani and its Relation to Other Languages==<br />
Yardistani is a language comprised heavily of loan words. As such, its relation to other languages is very important to its understanding. The language's relationship to Spanish, for instance, is comparable to English's relationship to French. English has its distinct syntax and grammar, its own pronunciation, and its own core vocabulary, but almost inexplicable amounts of the language are loaned from French and other Romantic sources. Yardistani is much the same as English in this example: it has a number of core vocabulary and its own grammar, but the language is primarily based on Spanish words.<br />
<br />
Yardistani shares some vocalbulary with [[Rantsilastani]], evidentaly from a common ancestor. This relationship is most evident in a number of verbs, but exists in many lexical categories: <br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"<br />
! Yardistani<br />
! Rantsilastani<br />
! Gloss<br />
|-<br />
| nejj<br />
| nej<br />
| to be<br />
|-<br />
| dajj<br />
| dej<br />
| to be (locative)<br />
|-<br />
| talajj<br />
| talej<br />
| to change ''(also'' to move ''in Rant.)''<br />
|-<br />
| Mrki<br />
| merko<br />
| Y: House; R: hut, shelter<br />
|-<br />
| -na<br />
| -na<br />
| ''genitive suffix''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Useful Phrases in Yardistani==<br />
<br />
*Hi! - ''¡Allo!'' or ''¡Don!<br />
*Hello - ''Donsu''<br />
*Goodbye - ''Donku''<br />
*My name is... - ''Nâmrjo ne...''<br />
*Where is...? - ''Xo da ...?''<br />
*I want to go to Novi Nigrad - ''Je kere vejj nja Nigrad Nehix''<br />
*I hope everybody is well and that the bomb are not killing you quickly. - ''J'espere kju Tôdrsa nejr bonís, ce kju Bômbrsa Disa mataju rapís''<br />
<br />
''See Also:'' [[Del-al'Enetet]], [[Radarasilikan]]<br />
[[Category:Fiction]] [[category:Yardistan]] [[category: Conlangs]] [[Category: Languages]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Laqi_language&diff=10431Laqi language2010-12-28T05:06:58Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Laqi<br />
| nativename= ''Laҳi''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈlæxi|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= Southern [[Brookshire]]<br />
| speakers= 4,275,100<br />
| familycolor= pink<br />
| fam1= Khaz-Modani<br />
| script= Latin (Laqi variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth, Barony of [[K'Tzuni]]<br />
| agency= Laqi Linguistic Board<br />
| mic1= laq<br />
}}<br />
<br />
''Noxi Laҳi... sьkarlә baarli Južŋaŋu'' <br><br />
''Our Laqi... the sweet speech of the South'' <br><br />
Traditional Saying<br />
<br />
Laqi is a [[Conlang]] spoken by the overwhelming majority of citizens of the county of [[Modan-lach]] and in smaller numbers in [[Lywind]] and [[Ž]]. It is a recognised official language of the [[Barony of K'Tzuni]]. Believed to have originated from dialects spoken by Khaz-Modanians in ancient times, Laqi is designed to have a Turkic appearance in its vocabulary, its alphabet designed greatly on those used by the Soviets in the 1920s for languages such as Tuvinian and Azeri. The first work on Laqi was started by [[Max edwards|Maksym Hadjimehmetov]] under the reign of [[Kaiser Mors V]]. A [[Laqi Phrasebook]] and basic grammar are currently being compiled.<br />
<br />
===Geographical Distribution===<br />
[[Image:Ktzunispeech.png]]<br />
Map showing linguistic distribution of Laqi and its neighbouring languages in the Barony of K'Tzuni <br><br />
<br />
As the map above shows, the geographical distribution of the Laqi Language is a wide one.<br />
The Lingua Franca of K'Tzuni, Laqi is a major Shirereithan [[Conlang]] and is used extensively by local government in K'Tzuni. Its influence leads to its common usage in the borderlands with other Baronies such as [[Dolor]], and also in small emigré communities of Laqis in major Shirereithan cities such as [[Shirekeep]].<br />
<br />
===Official Status===<br />
===Dialects===<br />
Numerous dialects of the Laqi language exist- though the accepted norm, standardised Laqi, is understood throughout the Laqi-speaking provinces and is generally the written form, an insular variation with many now outmoded and archaic aspects of vocabulary and syntax (such as colloquial use of the plural and retaining of imported words before the Laqi Language Purification by Laqi Linguistic Board) being spoken on the small island County of [[Ž]]. [[Lywind]] also has a distinct Laqi dialect- with numerous words of Lywind English. The ''purest'' Laqi dialect is known as ''High-Laqi'', spoken in Upper Lach, in the County of [[Modan-lach]]. It is this Laqi upon which the modern standardisation is based, and that which is taught in Laqi language schools and used for the great majority of publishing in the [[K'Tzuni]] region. <br />
Laqi spoken in [[Modan-lach]]'s coastal area is known as ''Low-Laqi'', and has many more imported words due to earlier contact with foreign tradesmen in the Khaz Gulf. The influx of native [[Shirithan English]] speakers to [[K'Tzuni]]'s capital, Brookshire Hamlet, during the time of the foundation of the [[Kehl]] (K'Tzuni's Baronial Legislative Body) also led to a noticable increase in colloquial Shirithan English words in Laqi circulating amongst Laqi speakers in the city.<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
===Grammar===<br />
<br />
Laqi syntax and grammar has been heavily influenced by the calques of numerous Indo-European languages, sharing similarities in conjugation, case utilisation, and personal pronouns with both the Slavic and Germanic branches of that language family.<br />
However, unusually for a language of Indo-European influence, Laqi is Kazakh is generally verb-final, though various permutations on SOV word order can be used depending on dialect and context.<br />
The usage of personal pronouns and conjugation is also comparable to the Altaic family tree, however, with the Turkic system of suffix addition being employed widely across the Laqi language to conjugate verbs. <br />
Unusually, as well as a singular and plural form of nouns, Laqi also maintains a dual form- found also in Slovenian- which is widely used. Colloquially, the plural form is often not used, instead repeating the noun twice, hyphenated, as in Indonesian and Malay.<br />
<br />
=====Cases=====<br />
Laqi has five cases. Case endings are applied to the last ending of a noun or adjective. <br />
These cases are the Nominative ''(subject)'', Accusative ''(direct object)'', Genitive ''(possessive)'', Dative''(indirect object)'', and Instrumental ''(comitative)''. <br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|+Declension of Laqi nouns<br />
!Case<br />
!Possible forms<br />
!Gema "''ship''"||Ҳavьa "''air''"||Uram "''bucket''"||Sәdiz "''carrot''"||Gobьv "''head''"||Zel "''salt''"<br />
|-<br />
!Nom<br />
| —||—||Gema||Ҳavьa||Uram||Sәdiz||Gobьv||Zel<br />
|-<br />
!Acc<br />
| -N,M,T||-nu, -nө, -nә, -mә, -mө, -ta, -tun||Gema'''nu'''||Ҳavьa'''nө'''||Uram'''(ь)mә'''||Sәdiz'''mө'''||Gobьv'''ta'''||Zel'''tun'''<br />
|-<br />
!Gen<br />
| -Ŋ,T||-ŋaŋ, -ŋarŋar, -ŋaŋaŋ, -ŋaŋu, -tog, -tet||Gema'''nu'''||Ҳavьa'''ŋarŋar'''||Uram'''ŋaŋaŋ'''||Sәdiz'''ŋaŋu'''||Gobьv'''tog'''||Zel'''tet'''<br />
|-<br />
!Dat<br />
| -Š||-šu, -šet, -šeš, -šem, -šar, šor||Gema'''šu'''||Ҳavьa'''šet'''||Uram'''šeš'''||Sәdiz'''šem'''||Gobьv'''šar'''||Zel'''šor'''<br />
|-<br />
!Inst<br />
| -B,Ž||-bo, -bet, -ben, -vet, -žen, -žaz<br />
||Gema'''bo'''||Ҳavьa'''bet'''||Uram'''ben'''||Sәdiz'''vet'''||Gobьv'''žen'''||Zel'''žaz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Pronouns=====<br />
Laqi has eight personal pronouns:<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|+Personal pronouns<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!Laqi||English||Laqi||English<br />
|-<br />
|Nog||I||Mus||We<br />
|-<br />
|Tat||You ''(singular informal)''||Ta||You ''(plural informal)''<br />
|-<br />
|Tet||You ''(singular formal)''||Te||You ''(plural formal)''<br />
|-<br />
|Əl/Ələ,Əlo ||He/She/It||Əlar||They<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Writing System===<br />
<br />
The Laqi alphabet is generally phoenetic, though there are regional variations in Upper Lach (see [[Modan-lach]]) and stress changes according to gender endings of adjectives and nouns. Unlike some of the Turkic languages which it is based on, there is no vowel harmony.<br />
The alphabet consists of thirty letters, seven of which are vowels.<br />
<br />
<br />
*A- ‘a’ as in apple<br />
*B- hard ‘b’ as in bet<br />
*C- ‘ts’ or ‘tz’ as in kibbutz<br />
*D-‘d’ as in ‘dot’<br />
*E- acute ‘e’ as in French soufflé<br />
*G- hard ‘g’ as in great<br />
*I- ‘ee’ as in need<br />
*J- ‘y’ as in year<br />
*K- ‘k’ as in kill<br />
*L- ‘l’ as in lemon<br />
*Ł- as in the Polish- soft English ‘w’ as in where<br />
*M- ‘m’ as in meat<br />
*N- ‘n’ as in nearly<br />
*Ŋ- ‘ny’ as in Chechnya<br />
*O- short ‘o’ as in lot<br />
*Ө- ‘oe’ as in German ö<br />
*P- ‘p’ as in party<br />
*R- ‘r’ as in really<br />
*S- ‘s’ as in simple<br />
*Š- ‘sh’ as in sharp<br />
*T- ‘t’ as in toast<br />
*U- ‘oo’ as in good <br />
*Ə- short ‘u’ as in tug<br />
*V- German ‘v’ (i.e soft ‘v’)<br />
*X- ‘ch’ as in cheese<br />
*Ҳ- ‘kh’ as in loch<br />
*Ь- clips preceeding vowel or consonant short<br />
*Z- ‘z’ as in zebra<br />
*Ž- soft ‘zh’ or the ‘su’ in leisure<br />
<br />
[[Category: Conlangs]] [[Category: K'Tzuni]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Rantsilastani_language&diff=10430Rantsilastani language2010-12-28T05:06:38Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{YAC}}<br />
<br />
{{infobox language<br />
| name= Rantsilastani<br />
| nativename= ''Rantsilastani''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈrɑntsilɑstɑni|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= Southeastern [[Yardistan]]<br />
| speakers= Unknown<br />
| familycolor= gold<br />
| fam1= Iardic<br />
| fam2= Insular<br />
| fam3= Outer<br />
| script= Latin (Rantsilastani variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= rsl<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[image:Rantsilastan.png|thumb|right|Rantsilastan is a territory in the south east of the Isle of Yardistan]]<br />
<br />
'''Rantsilastani''' is the language spoken by the people of [[Rantsilastan]].<br />
<br />
It is a [[Constructed language | conlang]] created by [[Gryphon Avocatio]]. It is related to [[Yardistani language | Yardistani]], Finnish, and Swedish. Syntactically, Rantsilastani is a right-headed language. Generally, sentences are in the Subject Object Verb order, but as the language is heavily declined these elements can be mixed up in most imaginable orders.<br />
<br />
The language has undergone a number of changes since it was first conceived, especially after Gryphon left micronations and learned more about actual linguistics. In its earliest forms, it looked like this:<br />
<br />
*Arikmetzlerÿ forstäkaisero në. Skoþalexanderÿ stroäkaisero naë. Vÿ ensäkaisero najë, tÿ kuveya në.<br />
*''Erik Metzler was the first Kaiser. Scott Alexander is the current Kaiser. It is unknown who will be the next Kaiser.''<br />
<br />
Nowadays, the same sentence would be rendered like this:<br />
<br />
*Ariky Metzlery forsta kaisero në. Skoþy Aleksandery nuana kaisero naë. Vy ta nesta kaisero najë kuvejja në.<br />
*Erik.NOM Metzler.NOM first kaiser.ACC be.PST. Scott.NOM Alexander.NOM now.GEN kaiser.ACC be.PRES. Who COMP next kaiser.ACC be.FUT unknown be.PRES.<br />
<br />
Compare this to the same sentence in Yardistani:<br />
<br />
*Aarik Metzler neja Kaiser primix. Xkos Alexandro ne Kaiser hrix. Ne kusabejix kje neje Kaiser proxix.<br />
*Erik Metzler be.PST kaiser first. Scott Alexander be.PRES kaiser current. be.PRES unknown who be.FUT kaiser next.<br />
<br />
The language is still very underdeveloped, lacking heavily in vocabulary (most of which has been loaned from Scandinavian, as well as Old English and Finnish) as well as useful declensions.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Noun Declension ==<br />
Nouns in Rantislastani are fully declined; that is to say, the words change form depending upon their syntactic position in a sentence, generally by taking a suffix. Taking a word like 'boko' ''book'', we get various different forms:<br />
<br />
*Nominative: boky (i.e. the subject of a sentence)<br />
*Accusative: boko (i.e. the direct object)<br />
*Dative: boktil (i.e. the indirect object, as well as a destination)<br />
*Genitive: bokna (i.e. like the possessive ''-'s'' suffix in English)<br />
*Locative: boki<br />
*Ablative: bokaf<br />
<br />
There are more case endings than this--these are meant only to serve as examples. The citation forms of nouns in Rantsilastani (that is, the dictionary form) is the accusative form.<br />
<br />
== Vowel Harmony ==<br />
Rantsilastani exhibits a form of vowel harmony not dissimilar to that of Finnish, though it is somewhat similar. The basic rules are as follows:<br />
<br />
*A vowel (excluding /a/ and /i/) has the same value for [round] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
*A vowel has the same value for [front] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
<br />
The consequence of this is that words will change pronunciation based upon what suffix they might have. Take for example the words below:<br />
<br />
*Fronting: boko = ['bo.ko] -> boky = ['bø.ky]<br />
*Rounding: kato = ['kɑ.to] -> katy = ['ka.ty]<br />
<br />
Due to the vowel distribution of Rantsilastani, both rounding and fronting cannot affect the same vowel. However, the process can create homophones with words containing /y/, /e/ and /o/. For instance, the words 'huso' and 'hyso' are pronounced differently, but in their Locative forms they are pronounced the same way--'husi' and 'hysi' are both ['hy.si]. Likewise /o/ can is fronted to [ø], and /e/ is rounded to [ø]. <br />
<br />
It should be noted that the vowel phoneme /a/ effectively blocks roundness harmony, but /i/ is transparent. That means that if there are rounded vowels after /i/, vowels coming before /i/ will be rounded too.<br />
<br />
Though this all seems complex, the changes that occur are systematic and easily remembered.<br />
<br />
[[category:fiction]]<br />
[[category:culture]]<br />
[[category:Yardistan]]<br />
[[category: Conlangs]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Passikaans_language&diff=10429Passikaans language2010-12-28T05:05:32Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Passikaans<br />
| nativename= ''Passikaans''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈpʰæsɪkʰɑns|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= Southwestern Shireroth<br />
| speakers= 611,000<br />
| familycolor= limegreen<br />
| fam1= Shiritho-Benacian<br />
| script= Latin (Passikaans variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth, Barony of [[Lakhesis]]<br />
| agency= Language Institute of the Highpassian Veldt<br />
| mic1= psk<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Passikaans''' is a Shirerithian [[Constructed language | conlang]] of the Shiritho-Benacian family of languages. It evolved from the earlier [[Lishkan]], and is slightly influenced by [[Lakhesian]], but only subtly. It is spoken in [[Highpass]], and also in parts of [[Thanatos]]. Local legends say that the language was formed when people attempted to imitate the sound of Veldt grass blowing in the wind. Passikaans is a harsh-sounding language.<br />
<br />
== Orthography and Sounds ==<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
a - as in c'''a'''t. '''IPA:''' æ <br><br />
e - as in p'''e'''t. '''IPA:''' ɛ <br><br />
i - as in k'''i'''t. '''IPA:''' ɪ <br><br />
í - as in m'''ea'''t. '''IPA:''' iː <br><br />
o - as in l'''o'''t. '''IPA:''' ɒ <br><br />
ó - as in c'''augh'''t. '''IPA:''' ɔː <br><br />
y - as in Uh? '''IPA:''' əː <br><br />
ú - as in g'''oo'''se. '''IPA:''' uː <br><br />
<br />
aa - long /a/ as in f'''a'''ther <br><br />
<br />
'''Consonants'''<br />
''(Pronounced as in British English)''<br><br />
b, d, f, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, s, t, v, w,<br><br />
<br />
x - as in Scottish 'loch' <br><br />
z - as in '''sh'''eep <br><br />
<br />
dv - 'v' as in viola<br><br />
dt - 't' as in transport<br><br />
<br />
== Grammar ==<br />
===Sentence Structure===<br />
The grammar of Passikaans is ridiculously simple, but its simplicity can lead to ambiguity and awkward compound words. This explains the large number of awkward and ambiguous people in [[Highpass]].<br />
<br />
Sentences are usually '''Subject-Verb-Object'''. It is important that sentences maintain this order because there is no grammatical case for nouns.<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs in the dictionary are shown in the ''infinitive'', such as '''kraam''' (to go).<br />
<br />
Affixes are added to the end of verbs to change the tense. This is simple, as Passikaans has only 3 tenses (unlike the 13 in English which include such beasts as ''Present Perfect Progressive'').<br />
<br />
To place a verb in the Past Tense (it has taken place), either 'ezem' or 'zem' is appended to the infinitive form of the verb. 'ezem' is added if the plain verb ends with a 'z'. So the phrases ''''I went'''', ''''I have gone'''', ''''I was going'''' could all be rendered as '''Aai kraamzem'''. <br />
<br />
To place a verb in the Present tense (it is happening now/it happens regularly/it happens conditionally), the verb remains the same as it is found in the dictionary. So ''''I go'''' and ''''I am going'''' are rendered as ''''Aai kraam''''.<br />
<br />
To place a verb in the Future tense (it will happen/it is going to happen), either 'zyk' or 'ezyk' is appended to the infinitive form of the verb. 'ezyk' is added if the plain verb ends with a 'z'. So the phrases '''I will go''', and '''I am going' to go''' are rendered as '''Aai kraamzyk'''.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
To make a verb imperative, as in "'''Run!'''", or "'''Go...'''", the prefix '''o-''' is added to the verb. If the verb starts with a vowel, the prefix '''ot-''' is added. For example, "'''Go!'''" is "'''Okraam!'''" and ''''fight!'''' is ''''ofaat!''''.<br />
<br />
===Nouns & Adjectives===<br />
====Nouns====<br />
Here are some nouns:<br><br />
<br />
'''steik''' - stick<br><br />
'''lúp''' - wolf<br><br />
'''kaasa''' - house<br><br />
'''kaans''' - language<br><br />
'''laal''' - light<br><br />
'''kep''' - rock<br><br />
'''lól''' - time<br><br />
'''vaak''' - fire<br><br />
'''mont''' - mountain<br><br />
'''dlex''' - brush<br><br />
'''nezt''' - nest<br><br />
'''amu''' - person<br><br />
'''nemba''' - number<br><br />
<br />
Pluralize a noun by appending '''-en'''. If it ends with a vowel, append '''-nen'''. 'Sticks' is '''Steiken''', while 'Houses' is '''Kaasanen'''<br />
<br />
====Adjectives====<br />
Here are some adjectives:<br><br />
<br />
'''veldt''' - pertaining to the Veldt<br><br />
'''dvendv''' - transparent<br><br />
'''aak''' - making the noise 'aaak'<br><br />
'''kan''' - big<br><br />
'''kó''' - good, kind, easy, bright<br><br />
'''akó''' - bad, nasty, difficult, dull<br><br />
'''míf''' - stray<br><br />
<br />
Describe a noun by placing an adjective before it to form a compound word e.g. '''bright light''' = '''kólaal''', '''toothbrush''' = '''dendtdlex''', '''transparent toothbrushes''' = '''dvendvdendtdlexen'''.<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
Passikaans uses several 'question words' to indicate that a phrase is interrogative.<br />
<br />
'''vot''' - general 'what?'<br />
'''vaal''' - how?<br />
'''ven''' - when?<br />
'''vó''' - who?<br />
'''vai''' - why?<br />
<br />
To ask a yes/no question one writes a statement and adds ''',vot?''' to the end. A questioning tone of voice should be used as in English.<br />
<br />
e.g 'Do you fight' is '''Zpa faat, vot?''', or ''''You fight, what?''''<br />
<br />
To ask a question with a definite answer (not yes/no), one replaces the missing information with one of the question words.<br />
<br />
== Information ==<br />
Passikaans was created by Oze McMahon. It is apparently based on Dutch and English.<br />
<br />
[[Category: Conlangs]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Passikaans_language&diff=10428Passikaans language2010-12-28T05:04:38Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Passikaans<br />
| nativename= ''Passikaans''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈpʰæsɪkʰɑns|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= Southwestern Shireroth<br />
| speakers= 611,000<br />
| familycolor= limegreen<br />
| fam1= Shiritho-Benacian<br />
| script= Latin (Passikaans variant)<br />
| nation= Shireroth, Barony of [[Lakhesis]]<br />
| agency= Language Institute of the Highpassian Veldt<br />
| mic1= psk<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{language<br />
|name=Passikaans<br />
|nativename= ''Passikaans''<br />
|familycolor=green<br />
|nations=[[Shireroth]]<br />
|region= South-Western Shireroth<br />
|speakers= 611,000+<br />
|family= Shiritho-Benacian languages<br />
|nation=[[Shireroth]], Barony of [[Lakhesis]]<br />
|agency= Language Institute of the Highpassian Veldt }}<br />
<br />
'''Passikaans''' is a Shirerithian [[conlang]] of the Shiritho-Benacian family of languages. It evolved from the earlier [[Lishkan]], and is slightly influenced by [[Lakhesian]], but only subtly. It is spoken in [[Highpass]], and also in parts of [[Thanatos]]. Local legends say that the language was formed when people attempted to imitate the sound of Veldt grass blowing in the wind. Passikaans is a harsh-sounding language.<br />
<br />
== Orthography and Sounds ==<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
a - as in c'''a'''t. '''IPA:''' æ <br><br />
e - as in p'''e'''t. '''IPA:''' ɛ <br><br />
i - as in k'''i'''t. '''IPA:''' ɪ <br><br />
í - as in m'''ea'''t. '''IPA:''' iː <br><br />
o - as in l'''o'''t. '''IPA:''' ɒ <br><br />
ó - as in c'''augh'''t. '''IPA:''' ɔː <br><br />
y - as in Uh? '''IPA:''' əː <br><br />
ú - as in g'''oo'''se. '''IPA:''' uː <br><br />
<br />
aa - long /a/ as in f'''a'''ther <br><br />
<br />
'''Consonants'''<br />
''(Pronounced as in British English)''<br><br />
b, d, f, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, s, t, v, w,<br><br />
<br />
x - as in Scottish 'loch' <br><br />
z - as in '''sh'''eep <br><br />
<br />
dv - 'v' as in viola<br><br />
dt - 't' as in transport<br><br />
<br />
== Grammar ==<br />
===Sentence Structure===<br />
The grammar of Passikaans is ridiculously simple, but its simplicity can lead to ambiguity and awkward compound words. This explains the large number of awkward and ambiguous people in [[Highpass]].<br />
<br />
Sentences are usually '''Subject-Verb-Object'''. It is important that sentences maintain this order because there is no grammatical case for nouns.<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs in the dictionary are shown in the ''infinitive'', such as '''kraam''' (to go).<br />
<br />
Affixes are added to the end of verbs to change the tense. This is simple, as Passikaans has only 3 tenses (unlike the 13 in English which include such beasts as ''Present Perfect Progressive'').<br />
<br />
To place a verb in the Past Tense (it has taken place), either 'ezem' or 'zem' is appended to the infinitive form of the verb. 'ezem' is added if the plain verb ends with a 'z'. So the phrases ''''I went'''', ''''I have gone'''', ''''I was going'''' could all be rendered as '''Aai kraamzem'''. <br />
<br />
To place a verb in the Present tense (it is happening now/it happens regularly/it happens conditionally), the verb remains the same as it is found in the dictionary. So ''''I go'''' and ''''I am going'''' are rendered as ''''Aai kraam''''.<br />
<br />
To place a verb in the Future tense (it will happen/it is going to happen), either 'zyk' or 'ezyk' is appended to the infinitive form of the verb. 'ezyk' is added if the plain verb ends with a 'z'. So the phrases '''I will go''', and '''I am going' to go''' are rendered as '''Aai kraamzyk'''.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
To make a verb imperative, as in "'''Run!'''", or "'''Go...'''", the prefix '''o-''' is added to the verb. If the verb starts with a vowel, the prefix '''ot-''' is added. For example, "'''Go!'''" is "'''Okraam!'''" and ''''fight!'''' is ''''ofaat!''''.<br />
<br />
===Nouns & Adjectives===<br />
====Nouns====<br />
Here are some nouns:<br><br />
<br />
'''steik''' - stick<br><br />
'''lúp''' - wolf<br><br />
'''kaasa''' - house<br><br />
'''kaans''' - language<br><br />
'''laal''' - light<br><br />
'''kep''' - rock<br><br />
'''lól''' - time<br><br />
'''vaak''' - fire<br><br />
'''mont''' - mountain<br><br />
'''dlex''' - brush<br><br />
'''nezt''' - nest<br><br />
'''amu''' - person<br><br />
'''nemba''' - number<br><br />
<br />
Pluralize a noun by appending '''-en'''. If it ends with a vowel, append '''-nen'''. 'Sticks' is '''Steiken''', while 'Houses' is '''Kaasanen'''<br />
<br />
====Adjectives====<br />
Here are some adjectives:<br><br />
<br />
'''veldt''' - pertaining to the Veldt<br><br />
'''dvendv''' - transparent<br><br />
'''aak''' - making the noise 'aaak'<br><br />
'''kan''' - big<br><br />
'''kó''' - good, kind, easy, bright<br><br />
'''akó''' - bad, nasty, difficult, dull<br><br />
'''míf''' - stray<br><br />
<br />
Describe a noun by placing an adjective before it to form a compound word e.g. '''bright light''' = '''kólaal''', '''toothbrush''' = '''dendtdlex''', '''transparent toothbrushes''' = '''dvendvdendtdlexen'''.<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
Passikaans uses several 'question words' to indicate that a phrase is interrogative.<br />
<br />
'''vot''' - general 'what?'<br />
'''vaal''' - how?<br />
'''ven''' - when?<br />
'''vó''' - who?<br />
'''vai''' - why?<br />
<br />
To ask a yes/no question one writes a statement and adds ''',vot?''' to the end. A questioning tone of voice should be used as in English.<br />
<br />
e.g 'Do you fight' is '''Zpa faat, vot?''', or ''''You fight, what?''''<br />
<br />
To ask a question with a definite answer (not yes/no), one replaces the missing information with one of the question words.<br />
<br />
== Information ==<br />
Passikaans was created by Oze McMahon. It is apparently based on Dutch and English.<br />
<br />
[[Category: Conlangs]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Passikaans&diff=10427Passikaans2010-12-28T04:57:59Z<p>Tau: moved Passikaans to Passikaans language</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[Passikaans language]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Passikaans_language&diff=10426Passikaans language2010-12-28T04:57:59Z<p>Tau: moved Passikaans to Passikaans language</p>
<hr />
<div>{{language<br />
|name=Passikaans<br />
|nativename= ''Passikaans''<br />
|familycolor=green<br />
|nations=[[Shireroth]]<br />
|region= South-Western Shireroth<br />
|speakers= 611,000+<br />
|family= Shiritho-Benacian languages<br />
|nation=[[Shireroth]], Barony of [[Lakhesis]]<br />
|agency= Language Institute of the Highpassian Veldt }}<br />
<br />
'''Passikaans''' is a Shirerithian [[conlang]] of the Shiritho-Benacian family of languages. It evolved from the earlier [[Lishkan]], and is slightly influenced by [[Lakhesian]], but only subtly. It is spoken in [[Highpass]], and also in parts of [[Thanatos]]. Local legends say that the language was formed when people attempted to imitate the sound of Veldt grass blowing in the wind. Passikaans is a harsh-sounding language.<br />
<br />
== Orthography and Sounds ==<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
a - as in c'''a'''t. '''IPA:''' æ <br><br />
e - as in p'''e'''t. '''IPA:''' ɛ <br><br />
i - as in k'''i'''t. '''IPA:''' ɪ <br><br />
í - as in m'''ea'''t. '''IPA:''' iː <br><br />
o - as in l'''o'''t. '''IPA:''' ɒ <br><br />
ó - as in c'''augh'''t. '''IPA:''' ɔː <br><br />
y - as in Uh? '''IPA:''' əː <br><br />
ú - as in g'''oo'''se. '''IPA:''' uː <br><br />
<br />
aa - long /a/ as in f'''a'''ther <br><br />
<br />
'''Consonants'''<br />
''(Pronounced as in British English)''<br><br />
b, d, f, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, s, t, v, w,<br><br />
<br />
x - as in Scottish 'loch' <br><br />
z - as in '''sh'''eep <br><br />
<br />
dv - 'v' as in viola<br><br />
dt - 't' as in transport<br><br />
<br />
== Grammar ==<br />
===Sentence Structure===<br />
The grammar of Passikaans is ridiculously simple, but its simplicity can lead to ambiguity and awkward compound words. This explains the large number of awkward and ambiguous people in [[Highpass]].<br />
<br />
Sentences are usually '''Subject-Verb-Object'''. It is important that sentences maintain this order because there is no grammatical case for nouns.<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs in the dictionary are shown in the ''infinitive'', such as '''kraam''' (to go).<br />
<br />
Affixes are added to the end of verbs to change the tense. This is simple, as Passikaans has only 3 tenses (unlike the 13 in English which include such beasts as ''Present Perfect Progressive'').<br />
<br />
To place a verb in the Past Tense (it has taken place), either 'ezem' or 'zem' is appended to the infinitive form of the verb. 'ezem' is added if the plain verb ends with a 'z'. So the phrases ''''I went'''', ''''I have gone'''', ''''I was going'''' could all be rendered as '''Aai kraamzem'''. <br />
<br />
To place a verb in the Present tense (it is happening now/it happens regularly/it happens conditionally), the verb remains the same as it is found in the dictionary. So ''''I go'''' and ''''I am going'''' are rendered as ''''Aai kraam''''.<br />
<br />
To place a verb in the Future tense (it will happen/it is going to happen), either 'zyk' or 'ezyk' is appended to the infinitive form of the verb. 'ezyk' is added if the plain verb ends with a 'z'. So the phrases '''I will go''', and '''I am going' to go''' are rendered as '''Aai kraamzyk'''.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
To make a verb imperative, as in "'''Run!'''", or "'''Go...'''", the prefix '''o-''' is added to the verb. If the verb starts with a vowel, the prefix '''ot-''' is added. For example, "'''Go!'''" is "'''Okraam!'''" and ''''fight!'''' is ''''ofaat!''''.<br />
<br />
===Nouns & Adjectives===<br />
====Nouns====<br />
Here are some nouns:<br><br />
<br />
'''steik''' - stick<br><br />
'''lúp''' - wolf<br><br />
'''kaasa''' - house<br><br />
'''kaans''' - language<br><br />
'''laal''' - light<br><br />
'''kep''' - rock<br><br />
'''lól''' - time<br><br />
'''vaak''' - fire<br><br />
'''mont''' - mountain<br><br />
'''dlex''' - brush<br><br />
'''nezt''' - nest<br><br />
'''amu''' - person<br><br />
'''nemba''' - number<br><br />
<br />
Pluralize a noun by appending '''-en'''. If it ends with a vowel, append '''-nen'''. 'Sticks' is '''Steiken''', while 'Houses' is '''Kaasanen'''<br />
<br />
====Adjectives====<br />
Here are some adjectives:<br><br />
<br />
'''veldt''' - pertaining to the Veldt<br><br />
'''dvendv''' - transparent<br><br />
'''aak''' - making the noise 'aaak'<br><br />
'''kan''' - big<br><br />
'''kó''' - good, kind, easy, bright<br><br />
'''akó''' - bad, nasty, difficult, dull<br><br />
'''míf''' - stray<br><br />
<br />
Describe a noun by placing an adjective before it to form a compound word e.g. '''bright light''' = '''kólaal''', '''toothbrush''' = '''dendtdlex''', '''transparent toothbrushes''' = '''dvendvdendtdlexen'''.<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
Passikaans uses several 'question words' to indicate that a phrase is interrogative.<br />
<br />
'''vot''' - general 'what?'<br />
'''vaal''' - how?<br />
'''ven''' - when?<br />
'''vó''' - who?<br />
'''vai''' - why?<br />
<br />
To ask a yes/no question one writes a statement and adds ''',vot?''' to the end. A questioning tone of voice should be used as in English.<br />
<br />
e.g 'Do you fight' is '''Zpa faat, vot?''', or ''''You fight, what?''''<br />
<br />
To ask a question with a definite answer (not yes/no), one replaces the missing information with one of the question words.<br />
<br />
== Information ==<br />
Passikaans was created by Oze McMahon. It is apparently based on Dutch and English.<br />
<br />
[[Category: Conlangs]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Proto-Lakhesian_language&diff=10425Proto-Lakhesian language2010-12-28T04:57:09Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Proto-Lakhesian<br />
| nativename=<br />
| pronunciation= {{IPA|}}<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]], [[Antica]]<br />
| region= [[Lakhesis]], [[Samudra]]<br />
| speakers= None (extinct)<br />
| familycolor= yellow<br />
| fam1= Lakhesian<br />
| script=<br />
| nation= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= plk<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Proto-Lakhesian''' is the ancestral language to Modern Lakhesian spoken in [[Amarr]] and the Nation of [[Lakhesis]] in Shireroth, as well as Samudran spoken in [[Antica]]. Most scolars agree that the language is a remnant from the people that inhabited the area before the tribes that would later make up the classes that founded Shireroth came to the area. Some believe, but most serious linguists disagree, that the Lakhesians and their langauge are a direct descendant from the people of the Khaz Modan empire.<br><br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_cons.png]]<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_vowels.png]]<br />
<br />
=Syllable structure=<br />
The syllable structure is CV, where C is a consonant and V vowel.<br><br />
<br />
=Stress=<br />
Lakhesian has gentle stress on the first syllable, similar to Hungarian. In loanwords, however, the stress is often inherited from the source language and indicated with an accent.<br><br />
<br />
=Transliteration=<br />
a, i, o, u, sh(=ʃ), f, h, j, k, l, ll, m, n, ng, p, s, t, w, '. The final letter, the apostrophe, represents the glottal stop. Palatalization is indicated by a trema on the following vowel, like this: "kapï".<br><br />
<br />
=Nouns=<br />
<br />
==Declension==<br />
Lakhesian nouns decline to show case, number and animacy. Nouns are divided into two noun classes; animate and inanimate. Usually things that are percieved to be alive are classed as animate, and dead things as inanimate, although this is often varied due to cultural and traditional reasons. There are no definite or indefinite articles. The basic word order is VSO, verb-subject-object, although due to the case system this order is pretty free.<br />
<br />
=Verbs=<br />
Lakhesian verbs are inflected to show aspect, evidentiality, mood and polarity (ambiguous). This class of words is rather large due to the fact that adjectives, for all intents and purposes, are treated as verbs.<br />
<br />
=Language family=<br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_langs.png]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Brookshire]]<br />
[[Category:Lakhesis]]<br />
[[Category:Culture]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Lakhesian&diff=10424Lakhesian2010-12-28T04:56:13Z<p>Tau: moved Lakhesian to Proto-Lakhesian language</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[Proto-Lakhesian language]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Proto-Lakhesian_language&diff=10423Proto-Lakhesian language2010-12-28T04:56:12Z<p>Tau: moved Lakhesian to Proto-Lakhesian language</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Proto-Lakhesian<br />
| nativename=<br />
| pronunciation= {{IPA|}}<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]], [[Antica]]<br />
| region= [[Lakhesis]], [[Samudra]]<br />
| speakers= None (extinct)<br />
| familycolor= yellow<br />
| fam1= Lakhesian<br />
| script=<br />
| nation= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= plk<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Proto-Lakhesian is the ancestral language to Modern Lakhesian spoken in [[Amarr]] and the [[Nation of Lakhesis]] in Shireroth, as well as Samudran spoken in [[Antica]]. Most scolars agree that the language is a remnant from the people that inhabited the area before the tribes that would later make up the classes that founded Shireroth came to the area. Some believe, but most serious linguists disagree, that the Lakhesians and their langauge are a direct descendant from the people of the Khaz Modan empire.<br><br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_cons.png]]<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_vowels.png]]<br />
<br />
=Syllable structure=<br />
The syllable structure is CV, where C is a consonant and V vowel.<br><br />
<br />
=Stress=<br />
Lakhesian has gentle stress on the first syllable, similar to Hungarian. In loanwords, however, the stress is often inherited from the source language and indicated with an accent.<br><br />
<br />
=Transliteration=<br />
a, i, o, u, sh(=ʃ), f, h, j, k, l, ll, m, n, ng, p, s, t, w, '. The final letter, the apostrophe, represents the glottal stop. Palatalization is indicated by a trema on the following vowel, like this: "kapï".<br><br />
<br />
=Nouns=<br />
<br />
==Declension==<br />
Lakhesian nouns decline to show case, number and animacy. Nouns are divided into two noun classes; animate and inanimate. Usually things that are percieved to be alive are classed as animate, and dead things as inanimate, although this is often varied due to cultural and traditional reasons. There are no definite or indefinite articles. The basic word order is VSO, verb-subject-object, although due to the case system this order is pretty free.<br />
<br />
=Verbs=<br />
Lakhesian verbs are inflected to show aspect, evidentiality, mood and polarity (ambiguous). This class of words is rather large due to the fact that adjectives, for all intents and purposes, are treated as verbs.<br />
<br />
=Language family=<br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_langs.png]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Brookshire]]<br />
[[Category:Lakhesis]]<br />
[[Category:Culture]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Proto-Lakhesian_language&diff=10422Proto-Lakhesian language2010-12-28T04:55:03Z<p>Tau: Infobox language</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Proto-Lakhesian<br />
| nativename=<br />
| pronunciation= {{IPA|}}<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]], [[Antica]]<br />
| region= [[Lakhesis]], [[Samudra]]<br />
| speakers= None (extinct)<br />
| familycolor= yellow<br />
| fam1= Lakhesian<br />
| script=<br />
| nation= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= plk<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Proto-Lakhesian is the ancestral language to Modern Lakhesian spoken in [[Amarr]] and the [[Nation of Lakhesis]] in Shireroth, as well as Samudran spoken in [[Antica]]. Most scolars agree that the language is a remnant from the people that inhabited the area before the tribes that would later make up the classes that founded Shireroth came to the area. Some believe, but most serious linguists disagree, that the Lakhesians and their langauge are a direct descendant from the people of the Khaz Modan empire.<br><br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_cons.png]]<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_vowels.png]]<br />
<br />
=Syllable structure=<br />
The syllable structure is CV, where C is a consonant and V vowel.<br><br />
<br />
=Stress=<br />
Lakhesian has gentle stress on the first syllable, similar to Hungarian. In loanwords, however, the stress is often inherited from the source language and indicated with an accent.<br><br />
<br />
=Transliteration=<br />
a, i, o, u, sh(=ʃ), f, h, j, k, l, ll, m, n, ng, p, s, t, w, '. The final letter, the apostrophe, represents the glottal stop. Palatalization is indicated by a trema on the following vowel, like this: "kapï".<br><br />
<br />
=Nouns=<br />
<br />
==Declension==<br />
Lakhesian nouns decline to show case, number and animacy. Nouns are divided into two noun classes; animate and inanimate. Usually things that are percieved to be alive are classed as animate, and dead things as inanimate, although this is often varied due to cultural and traditional reasons. There are no definite or indefinite articles. The basic word order is VSO, verb-subject-object, although due to the case system this order is pretty free.<br />
<br />
=Verbs=<br />
Lakhesian verbs are inflected to show aspect, evidentiality, mood and polarity (ambiguous). This class of words is rather large due to the fact that adjectives, for all intents and purposes, are treated as verbs.<br />
<br />
=Language family=<br />
[[Image:Lakhesian_langs.png]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Brookshire]]<br />
[[Category:Lakhesis]]<br />
[[Category:Culture]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Laqi_language&diff=10421Laqi language2010-12-28T04:46:40Z<p>Tau: Infobox language</p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Laqi<br />
| nativename= ''Laҳi''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈlæxi|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= Southern [[Brookshire]]<br />
| speakers= 4,275,100<br />
| familycolor= pink<br />
| fam1= Khaz-Modani<br />
| script= Latin (Laqi variant)<br />
| nation= [[Shireroth]], Barony of [[K'Tzuni]]<br />
| agency= Laqi Linguistic Board<br />
| mic1= laq<br />
}}<br />
<br />
''Noxi Laҳi... sьkarlә baarli Južŋaŋu'' <br><br />
''Our Laqi... the sweet speech of the South'' <br><br />
Traditional Saying<br />
<br />
Laqi is a [[Conlang]] spoken by the overwhelming majority of citizens of the county of [[Modan-lach]] and in smaller numbers in [[Lywind]] and [[Ž]]. It is a recognised official language of the [[Barony of K'Tzuni]]. Believed to have originated from dialects spoken by Khaz-Modanians in ancient times, Laqi is designed to have a Turkic appearance in its vocabulary, its alphabet designed greatly on those used by the Soviets in the 1920s for languages such as Tuvinian and Azeri. The first work on Laqi was started by [[Max edwards|Maksym Hadjimehmetov]] under the reign of [[Kaiser Mors V]]. A [[Laqi Phrasebook]] and basic grammar are currently being compiled.<br />
<br />
===Geographical Distribution===<br />
[[Image:Ktzunispeech.png]]<br />
Map showing linguistic distribution of Laqi and its neighbouring languages in the Barony of K'Tzuni <br><br />
<br />
As the map above shows, the geographical distribution of the Laqi Language is a wide one.<br />
The Lingua Franca of K'Tzuni, Laqi is a major Shirereithan [[Conlang]] and is used extensively by local government in K'Tzuni. Its influence leads to its common usage in the borderlands with other Baronies such as [[Dolor]], and also in small emigré communities of Laqis in major Shirereithan cities such as [[Shirekeep]].<br />
<br />
===Official Status===<br />
===Dialects===<br />
Numerous dialects of the Laqi language exist- though the accepted norm, standardised Laqi, is understood throughout the Laqi-speaking provinces and is generally the written form, an insular variation with many now outmoded and archaic aspects of vocabulary and syntax (such as colloquial use of the plural and retaining of imported words before the Laqi Language Purification by Laqi Linguistic Board) being spoken on the small island County of [[Ž]]. [[Lywind]] also has a distinct Laqi dialect- with numerous words of Lywind English. The ''purest'' Laqi dialect is known as ''High-Laqi'', spoken in Upper Lach, in the County of [[Modan-lach]]. It is this Laqi upon which the modern standardisation is based, and that which is taught in Laqi language schools and used for the great majority of publishing in the [[K'Tzuni]] region. <br />
Laqi spoken in [[Modan-lach]]'s coastal area is known as ''Low-Laqi'', and has many more imported words due to earlier contact with foreign tradesmen in the Khaz Gulf. The influx of native [[Shirithan English]] speakers to [[K'Tzuni]]'s capital, Brookshire Hamlet, during the time of the foundation of the [[Kehl]] (K'Tzuni's Baronial Legislative Body) also led to a noticable increase in colloquial Shirithan English words in Laqi circulating amongst Laqi speakers in the city.<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
===Grammar===<br />
<br />
Laqi syntax and grammar has been heavily influenced by the calques of numerous Indo-European languages, sharing similarities in conjugation, case utilisation, and personal pronouns with both the Slavic and Germanic branches of that language family.<br />
However, unusually for a language of Indo-European influence, Laqi is Kazakh is generally verb-final, though various permutations on SOV word order can be used depending on dialect and context.<br />
The usage of personal pronouns and conjugation is also comparable to the Altaic family tree, however, with the Turkic system of suffix addition being employed widely across the Laqi language to conjugate verbs. <br />
Unusually, as well as a singular and plural form of nouns, Laqi also maintains a dual form- found also in Slovenian- which is widely used. Colloquially, the plural form is often not used, instead repeating the noun twice, hyphenated, as in Indonesian and Malay.<br />
<br />
=====Cases=====<br />
Laqi has five cases. Case endings are applied to the last ending of a noun or adjective. <br />
These cases are the Nominative ''(subject)'', Accusative ''(direct object)'', Genitive ''(possessive)'', Dative''(indirect object)'', and Instrumental ''(comitative)''. <br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|+Declension of Laqi nouns<br />
!Case<br />
!Possible forms<br />
!Gema "''ship''"||Ҳavьa "''air''"||Uram "''bucket''"||Sәdiz "''carrot''"||Gobьv "''head''"||Zel "''salt''"<br />
|-<br />
!Nom<br />
| —||—||Gema||Ҳavьa||Uram||Sәdiz||Gobьv||Zel<br />
|-<br />
!Acc<br />
| -N,M,T||-nu, -nө, -nә, -mә, -mө, -ta, -tun||Gema'''nu'''||Ҳavьa'''nө'''||Uram'''(ь)mә'''||Sәdiz'''mө'''||Gobьv'''ta'''||Zel'''tun'''<br />
|-<br />
!Gen<br />
| -Ŋ,T||-ŋaŋ, -ŋarŋar, -ŋaŋaŋ, -ŋaŋu, -tog, -tet||Gema'''nu'''||Ҳavьa'''ŋarŋar'''||Uram'''ŋaŋaŋ'''||Sәdiz'''ŋaŋu'''||Gobьv'''tog'''||Zel'''tet'''<br />
|-<br />
!Dat<br />
| -Š||-šu, -šet, -šeš, -šem, -šar, šor||Gema'''šu'''||Ҳavьa'''šet'''||Uram'''šeš'''||Sәdiz'''šem'''||Gobьv'''šar'''||Zel'''šor'''<br />
|-<br />
!Inst<br />
| -B,Ž||-bo, -bet, -ben, -vet, -žen, -žaz<br />
||Gema'''bo'''||Ҳavьa'''bet'''||Uram'''ben'''||Sәdiz'''vet'''||Gobьv'''žen'''||Zel'''žaz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Pronouns=====<br />
Laqi has eight personal pronouns:<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|+Personal pronouns<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!Laqi||English||Laqi||English<br />
|-<br />
|Nog||I||Mus||We<br />
|-<br />
|Tat||You ''(singular informal)''||Ta||You ''(plural informal)''<br />
|-<br />
|Tet||You ''(singular formal)''||Te||You ''(plural formal)''<br />
|-<br />
|Əl/Ələ,Əlo ||He/She/It||Əlar||They<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Writing System===<br />
<br />
The Laqi alphabet is generally phoenetic, though there are regional variations in Upper Lach (see [[Modan-lach]]) and stress changes according to gender endings of adjectives and nouns. Unlike some of the Turkic languages which it is based on, there is no vowel harmony.<br />
The alphabet consists of thirty letters, seven of which are vowels.<br />
<br />
<br />
*A- ‘a’ as in apple<br />
*B- hard ‘b’ as in bet<br />
*C- ‘ts’ or ‘tz’ as in kibbutz<br />
*D-‘d’ as in ‘dot’<br />
*E- acute ‘e’ as in French soufflé<br />
*G- hard ‘g’ as in great<br />
*I- ‘ee’ as in need<br />
*J- ‘y’ as in year<br />
*K- ‘k’ as in kill<br />
*L- ‘l’ as in lemon<br />
*Ł- as in the Polish- soft English ‘w’ as in where<br />
*M- ‘m’ as in meat<br />
*N- ‘n’ as in nearly<br />
*Ŋ- ‘ny’ as in Chechnya<br />
*O- short ‘o’ as in lot<br />
*Ө- ‘oe’ as in German ö<br />
*P- ‘p’ as in party<br />
*R- ‘r’ as in really<br />
*S- ‘s’ as in simple<br />
*Š- ‘sh’ as in sharp<br />
*T- ‘t’ as in toast<br />
*U- ‘oo’ as in good <br />
*Ə- short ‘u’ as in tug<br />
*V- German ‘v’ (i.e soft ‘v’)<br />
*X- ‘ch’ as in cheese<br />
*Ҳ- ‘kh’ as in loch<br />
*Ь- clips preceeding vowel or consonant short<br />
*Z- ‘z’ as in zebra<br />
*Ž- soft ‘zh’ or the ‘su’ in leisure<br />
<br />
[[Category: Conlangs]] [[Category: K'Tzuni]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Laqi&diff=10420Laqi2010-12-28T04:40:30Z<p>Tau: moved Laqi to Laqi language</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[Laqi language]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Laqi_language&diff=10419Laqi language2010-12-28T04:40:30Z<p>Tau: moved Laqi to Laqi language</p>
<hr />
<div>{{language<br />
|name=Laqi <br />
|nativename= ''Laҳi''<br />
|familycolor=red<br />
|nations=[[Shireroth]]<br />
|region= Southern Brookshire<br />
|speakers=4,275,100<br />
|family= Khaz-Modani Languages<br />
|nation=[[Shireroth]], Barony of [[K'Tzuni]]<br />
|agency= Laqi Linguistic Board }}<br />
<br />
''Noxi Laҳi... sьkarlә baarli Južŋaŋu'' <br><br />
''Our Laqi... the sweet speech of the South'' <br><br />
Traditional Saying<br />
<br />
Laqi is a [[Conlang]] spoken by the overwhelming majority of citizens of the county of [[Modan-lach]] and in smaller numbers in [[Lywind]] and [[Ž]]. It is a recognised official language of the [[Barony of K'Tzuni]]. Believed to have originated from dialects spoken by Khaz-Modanians in ancient times, Laqi is designed to have a Turkic appearance in its vocabulary, its alphabet designed greatly on those used by the Soviets in the 1920s for languages such as Tuvinian and Azeri. The first work on Laqi was started by [[Max edwards|Maksym Hadjimehmetov]] under the reign of [[Kaiser Mors V]]. A [[Laqi Phrasebook]] and basic grammar are currently being compiled.<br />
<br />
===Geographical Distribution===<br />
[[Image:Ktzunispeech.png]]<br />
Map showing linguistic distribution of Laqi and its neighbouring languages in the Barony of K'Tzuni <br><br />
<br />
As the map above shows, the geographical distribution of the Laqi Language is a wide one.<br />
The Lingua Franca of K'Tzuni, Laqi is a major Shirereithan [[Conlang]] and is used extensively by local government in K'Tzuni. Its influence leads to its common usage in the borderlands with other Baronies such as [[Dolor]], and also in small emigré communities of Laqis in major Shirereithan cities such as [[Shirekeep]].<br />
<br />
===Official Status===<br />
===Dialects===<br />
Numerous dialects of the Laqi language exist- though the accepted norm, standardised Laqi, is understood throughout the Laqi-speaking provinces and is generally the written form, an insular variation with many now outmoded and archaic aspects of vocabulary and syntax (such as colloquial use of the plural and retaining of imported words before the Laqi Language Purification by Laqi Linguistic Board) being spoken on the small island County of [[Ž]]. [[Lywind]] also has a distinct Laqi dialect- with numerous words of Lywind English. The ''purest'' Laqi dialect is known as ''High-Laqi'', spoken in Upper Lach, in the County of [[Modan-lach]]. It is this Laqi upon which the modern standardisation is based, and that which is taught in Laqi language schools and used for the great majority of publishing in the [[K'Tzuni]] region. <br />
Laqi spoken in [[Modan-lach]]'s coastal area is known as ''Low-Laqi'', and has many more imported words due to earlier contact with foreign tradesmen in the Khaz Gulf. The influx of native [[Shirithan English]] speakers to [[K'Tzuni]]'s capital, Brookshire Hamlet, during the time of the foundation of the [[Kehl]] (K'Tzuni's Baronial Legislative Body) also led to a noticable increase in colloquial Shirithan English words in Laqi circulating amongst Laqi speakers in the city.<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
===Grammar===<br />
<br />
Laqi syntax and grammar has been heavily influenced by the calques of numerous Indo-European languages, sharing similarities in conjugation, case utilisation, and personal pronouns with both the Slavic and Germanic branches of that language family.<br />
However, unusually for a language of Indo-European influence, Laqi is Kazakh is generally verb-final, though various permutations on SOV word order can be used depending on dialect and context.<br />
The usage of personal pronouns and conjugation is also comparable to the Altaic family tree, however, with the Turkic system of suffix addition being employed widely across the Laqi language to conjugate verbs. <br />
Unusually, as well as a singular and plural form of nouns, Laqi also maintains a dual form- found also in Slovenian- which is widely used. Colloquially, the plural form is often not used, instead repeating the noun twice, hyphenated, as in Indonesian and Malay.<br />
<br />
=====Cases=====<br />
Laqi has five cases. Case endings are applied to the last ending of a noun or adjective. <br />
These cases are the Nominative ''(subject)'', Accusative ''(direct object)'', Genitive ''(possessive)'', Dative''(indirect object)'', and Instrumental ''(comitative)''. <br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|+Declension of Laqi nouns<br />
!Case<br />
!Possible forms<br />
!Gema "''ship''"||Ҳavьa "''air''"||Uram "''bucket''"||Sәdiz "''carrot''"||Gobьv "''head''"||Zel "''salt''"<br />
|-<br />
!Nom<br />
| —||—||Gema||Ҳavьa||Uram||Sәdiz||Gobьv||Zel<br />
|-<br />
!Acc<br />
| -N,M,T||-nu, -nө, -nә, -mә, -mө, -ta, -tun||Gema'''nu'''||Ҳavьa'''nө'''||Uram'''(ь)mә'''||Sәdiz'''mө'''||Gobьv'''ta'''||Zel'''tun'''<br />
|-<br />
!Gen<br />
| -Ŋ,T||-ŋaŋ, -ŋarŋar, -ŋaŋaŋ, -ŋaŋu, -tog, -tet||Gema'''nu'''||Ҳavьa'''ŋarŋar'''||Uram'''ŋaŋaŋ'''||Sәdiz'''ŋaŋu'''||Gobьv'''tog'''||Zel'''tet'''<br />
|-<br />
!Dat<br />
| -Š||-šu, -šet, -šeš, -šem, -šar, šor||Gema'''šu'''||Ҳavьa'''šet'''||Uram'''šeš'''||Sәdiz'''šem'''||Gobьv'''šar'''||Zel'''šor'''<br />
|-<br />
!Inst<br />
| -B,Ž||-bo, -bet, -ben, -vet, -žen, -žaz<br />
||Gema'''bo'''||Ҳavьa'''bet'''||Uram'''ben'''||Sәdiz'''vet'''||Gobьv'''žen'''||Zel'''žaz'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Pronouns=====<br />
Laqi has eight personal pronouns:<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|+Personal pronouns<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!Laqi||English||Laqi||English<br />
|-<br />
|Nog||I||Mus||We<br />
|-<br />
|Tat||You ''(singular informal)''||Ta||You ''(plural informal)''<br />
|-<br />
|Tet||You ''(singular formal)''||Te||You ''(plural formal)''<br />
|-<br />
|Əl/Ələ,Əlo ||He/She/It||Əlar||They<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Writing System===<br />
<br />
The Laqi alphabet is generally phoenetic, though there are regional variations in Upper Lach (see [[Modan-lach]]) and stress changes according to gender endings of adjectives and nouns. Unlike some of the Turkic languages which it is based on, there is no vowel harmony.<br />
The alphabet consists of thirty letters, seven of which are vowels.<br />
<br />
<br />
*A- ‘a’ as in apple<br />
*B- hard ‘b’ as in bet<br />
*C- ‘ts’ or ‘tz’ as in kibbutz<br />
*D-‘d’ as in ‘dot’<br />
*E- acute ‘e’ as in French soufflé<br />
*G- hard ‘g’ as in great<br />
*I- ‘ee’ as in need<br />
*J- ‘y’ as in year<br />
*K- ‘k’ as in kill<br />
*L- ‘l’ as in lemon<br />
*Ł- as in the Polish- soft English ‘w’ as in where<br />
*M- ‘m’ as in meat<br />
*N- ‘n’ as in nearly<br />
*Ŋ- ‘ny’ as in Chechnya<br />
*O- short ‘o’ as in lot<br />
*Ө- ‘oe’ as in German ö<br />
*P- ‘p’ as in party<br />
*R- ‘r’ as in really<br />
*S- ‘s’ as in simple<br />
*Š- ‘sh’ as in sharp<br />
*T- ‘t’ as in toast<br />
*U- ‘oo’ as in good <br />
*Ə- short ‘u’ as in tug<br />
*V- German ‘v’ (i.e soft ‘v’)<br />
*X- ‘ch’ as in cheese<br />
*Ҳ- ‘kh’ as in loch<br />
*Ь- clips preceeding vowel or consonant short<br />
*Z- ‘z’ as in zebra<br />
*Ž- soft ‘zh’ or the ‘su’ in leisure<br />
<br />
[[Category: Conlangs]] [[Category: K'Tzuni]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Yardistani_language&diff=10418Yardistani language2010-12-28T04:38:45Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{infobox language<br />
| name= Yardistani<br />
| nativename= ''Iardîstato''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|jɑrdiˈstato|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= [[Yardistan]]<br />
| speakers= Unknown<br />
| familycolor= gold<br />
| fam1= Iardic<br />
| fam2= Insular<br />
| fam3= Inner<br />
| script= Latin (Yardistani variant)<br />
| nation= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= yrd<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Yardistani''' is the fictional native language of the people of [[Yardistan]]. In real life, it is actually a [[Constructed language | conlang]] developed by [[Gryphon Avocatio]].<br />
<br />
Yardistani is primarily based on Spanish vocabulary and grammar, but its pronunciation and spelling are more based on Germanic languages. It also has several influences from English, Swedish, and Japanese. Before it was adopted for use in micronations, Gryphon created the language to have a certain aesthetic value in his mind. Consequently,<br />
it looks rather peculiar. <br />
<br />
According to his fictional history for the language, Gryphon says that the language is derived from a trade pidgin, combining elements of a now-lost native language with Spanish and, to a lesser extent, Swedish from far-off traders. <br />
<br />
Also evolving from that long-lost language is [[Rantsilastani]], spoken in the territory of [[Rantsilastan]] in the south-east of the [[Isle of Yardistan]]. The only actual speaker of the language is [[Gryphon Avocatio]]. He has been working on the language intermittently for over eight years.<br />
<br />
This introduction is translated into Yardistani below.<br />
----<br />
'''Iardîstato''' ne Idiomr nativix fiktix du Hêntrsa [[Yardistan|dIardista]]. Nja Vidr verdix, ljo ne aktualís Idiomr konxtrutejix kju ne formaj par [[Gryphon Avocatio|Grifon Avocatio]].<br />
<br />
Iardîstato ne basaj primís nja Vokablulari ce Gramatikr Spanjâtix, ye ljona Habašavegr cOrþaši ne basaj maís nja Idiômrsa Jermanix. Habe Influênsrsa multix dÂngloto, du Svêriyeto, ce du Nihonto. Antís du ljo neja adoptaj par Usr nja Micronâtrsa, Grifon creaja ljo Idiomr par habejj Valihr aasþetix xpesifix nje Mêntrlo. Konsegešís, apara<br />
peculiarix.<br />
<br />
Akordaši nja Hixtoraat fiktix du Idiomr, Grifon haba kju Idiomr ne derivajix du ''Pidjin'' du Komersr, kombinaši Elemêntrsa du Idiomrsa nativix hrís-perdix kjan Spanjâtix ce, njExtentr maís-menix, Svêriyeto<br />
af Komêrsamajsa du Landsa leyix. <br />
<br />
Tam evolveši af oya Idiomr perdix ne [[Rantsilastani|Rantsilâstato]], habaj nje Tera du [[Rantsilastan|Rantsilasta]] njOrd sordix du [[Isle of Yardistan|Islr du Iardista]]. Habamaj aktualix solix du Idiomr ne [[Gryphon Avocatio|Grifon Avocatio]]. Le habe nej scribaši ljo Idiomr par maís kju novi ânrsa.<br />
<br />
==Yardistani Pronunciation==<br />
Yardistani is in some ways difficult to pronounce. There are a number of consonant sounds that occur in the language that sound very similar and that do not occur in the English language (including retroflex and palatal fricatives). There is also, in several cases, more than one way to spell several consonant sounds, but generally any group of letters can only be pronounced one way; for instance, the combination 'sk' and 'xk' are both pronounced [sk], and 'š' and 'sj' are both pronounced as [ʃ] (the 'sh' sound in English).<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Yardistani vowels follow the conventions of a continental language, with some variation in precise quality based on stress and position in a word. The real exception to this is 'u' which can have three pronunciations with no distinction indicated in the orthography. For instance, in the word <siu> ''city'', it is pronounced [u] (as in English ''rude''); in 'su' and 'ku' ''yes'' and ''no'', it is pronounced [ʊ] (as in ''put''), and in 'du' ''of'', it is pronounced [ɨ] (think Californian ''dude!'').<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Alphabets===<br />
The Yardistani Alphabet comprises 27 letters:<br />
<br />
A B C D E F G H I Í J K L M N O P R S Š T U V X Y Z Þ<br />
<br />
There are some variations on this; for instance, some dialects use 'æ' instead of 'aa' in words like 'hixtoraat/historæt', but this is very uncommon. In some older texts, 'š' is printed as 'ж' (an 'x' with a vertical bar through it), such that words like 'talaši' would instead be 'talaжi'. This convention has been abandoned, but can occasionally be seen in older texts. Also, it is not uncommon to see '-jj' handwritten as a single 'j' with an accute accent; however, no such character exists in Unicode.<br />
<br />
Circumflex accents are written over vowels to show stress when words do not follow the normal prosodic rules of the language. This can happen for a number of reasons: the word may have a different stress pattern phonemically, suffixes may have altered the number of syllables a word has, or the word is a loan. The letters I and Í are considered separate.<br />
<br />
The alphabet also lacks characters found in the English alphabet, namely 'Q' and 'W'. These letters do not occur in Yardistani. The language opts to adapt loan words to the native orthography. Thus, if names such as 'Enrique' and 'William' were to be loaned into the language, one would expect them to be spelt 'Enrike' and 'Uiljam' or 'Uiljamr'. Of course, as the latter is not loaned into the language, it would still be written as in English. Othe exceptions include scientific names, like 'W-bosonr'.<br />
<br />
Yardistani also has its own script, '''Yômato''' (lit. 'reading language'). It is derived heavily from Greek, though it has its own, purely Yardistani influence. A font is known to exist. [[image:iardia.png|thumb|right|A sign one might see at a Yardistani port or airport. It reads "Welcome to Yardistan. If you have imports to declare, please go to the left."]]<br />
<br />
Yardistani can also be written in runes, which is most common in the north-east of the island.<br />
<br />
===Spelling===<br />
Spelling in Yardistani can sometimes be anomalous, as mentioned above. Most letters have only one pronunciation. The ones that are pronounced vastly differently than they are in English are listed below:<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
*'''C'''<br />
**[tʃ], as the 'ch' in English 'chair'. This is '''always''' the pronunciations.<br />
*'''J'''<br />
**[ʒ], as the 'si' in 'fusion', but only at the beginning of words<br />
**[j], as the 'y' in 'yes', directly after or before consonants<br />
**[dʒ], as in the 'j' in 'judge' elsewhere.<br />
*'''R'''<br />
**This letter is the most complicated in the language. Some hard, fast rules are that it is always a flapped [ɾ] at the beginnings of words and between vowels, but at the end of words it can be more complex.<br />
*'''Š'''<br />
**[ʃ], as the 'sh' in Shireroth.<br />
*'''X'''<br />
**[z], as the 'x' in 'xerograph', at the beginnins of words<br />
**[s], like the 's' in 'start', before voiceless consonants (see below)<br />
**[ks], as the 'x' in 'fix', elsewhere.<br />
*'''Y'''<br />
**[ʝ]. There exists no equivalent sound in English. It can be approximated by making the vowel in the English word 'be' and pushing the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth until there is vibration. It sounds very similar to [j] and [ʒ] and should not be confused.<br />
*'''Þ'''<br />
**[θ], as the 'th' in 'thank', but '''never''' the 'th' in 'that'.<br />
<br />
====Consonant Combinations====<br />
There are many orthographic consonant clusters in Yardistani that have less-than-obvious phonetic correspondences:<br />
<br />
*CJ - [ç], roughly the 'h' in an emphatic English 'huge'<br />
*DJ - [dʒ], usually only at the beginnings of words<br />
*GR - [ʀ], no English equivalent. Basically the 'r'-sound of French and some German dialects. <br />
*HR - [ʂ], no standard English equivalent. Produced by curling the tongue back slightly whilst making an 's'-sound<br />
*JJ - [ʒ]<br />
*KJ - [dʒ]<br />
*SJ - [ʃ]<br />
*ŠJ - [ʒ]<br />
*XK, XT, XP - These are the prefered ways of spelling the sounds [sk], [st], and [sp], respectively. 's' can generally be used in place of 'x'; for instance 'Hixtoraat' vs. 'Historaat' ''History''. However, some words are usually spelt with an 's', like 'Iardîstato' (compared with the less common 'Iardîxtato').<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
Vowels are virtually all pronounced differently than they are in most English dialects. The pronunciation guides given below are for General American English.<br />
<br />
* '''A'''<br />
** [ɑ], as the 'o' in 'pot', when stressed and before 'r'<br />
** [a] elsewhere, though it can reduce to [ə], especially at the ends of words.<br />
* '''E'''<br />
** [e], as the 'a' in 'fate', before 'r' and word-finally (thought not in some short words like 'ne' and 'ye')<br />
** [ɛ], as 'e' in 'met', elsewhere.<br />
*'''I''' <br />
** [ɪ], as the 'i' in 'bit'<br />
** [j], as the 'y' in 'yes', before vowels; <br />
** [i], as the 'ee' in 'beet', word finally.<br />
*'''Í'''<br />
** [i], as the 'ee' in 'beet'. '''Never''' [ɪ]<br />
*'''O''' <br />
** [ɔ], as the 'au' in East-coast English 'caught'<br />
** [o], as the 'oa' in 'boat', word-finally.<br />
*'''U'''<br />
** [ʊ]<br />
** [ɨ]<br />
** [u]<br />
<br />
*'''AA''' <br />
** [æ], as the 'a' in 'cat'.<br />
*'''AE''', '''AI''', '''AJ''' (before a consonant)<br />
**[aɪ], as the word 'I' in English. This is the only non-loned diphthong in the language.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
There are a number of phonological processes at work in Yardistani. Some are described below.<br />
<br />
===Consonant Phonemes===<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align:center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! &nbsp;<br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental <br />
! Alveolar <br />
! Postalveolar<br />
! Retroflex<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive<br />
| p b<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| t d<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| kg<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| ʔ<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| m<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| n<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| r<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| (ʀ)<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! Tap<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| (ɾ)<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| f v<br />
| θ <br />
| s z<br />
| ʃ ʒ<br />
| ʂ<br />
| ç ʝ<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| (ɹ)<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| j<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| l<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The sounds in brackets, [ɾ], [ɹ] and [ʀ], are likely all surface representations of the phoneme /r/. That means they are not phonemes themselves, but as they are quite common sounds in the language it is useful to show them in the distribution. The actual sound [r] only occurs as an emphatic variation of [ɾ].<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
Yardistani has nine vowel phonemes (that is, contrasting vowel sounds). There is a three-way height distinction at the phonemic level, as well as a tense/lax distinction for high vowels. It is unclear whether schwa (the mid-central vowel) is in fact phonemic. Likewise, the high back vowels, which show considerable variation, may be analysable in another manner.<br />
<br />
Note too that there are a number of allophones not shown here. As the pronunciation section above shows, many vowels have pronunciations that vary based on environment.<br />
<br />
[[image:vokalrsaiardix.png]]<br />
<br />
===Phonological Rules===<br />
There are a number of rules that affect pronunciation of the languange.<br />
<br />
The vocalic phonemes /ɪ/ and /u/ become semivowels [j] and [w], respectively, before vowels.<br />
<br />
When /r/ directly precedes /s/ in a word, both segments become retroflex so that they are pronounced [ɻʂ].<br />
<br />
Word-finally, /r/ can devoice, becoming a voiceless trill [r˳]. Between two consonants, it becomes syllabic [ɹ].<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Yardistani syntax is for the most part straightforward. It is left-headed, and most often sentences are in the Subject-Verb-Object ('''SVO''') order, just like English. However, Yardistani shows considerably more variation. Despite being undeclined, the language has relatively free word order, especially where pronouns are in use. The following two sentences are equivalent:<br />
<br />
*Je Di sabi.<br />
*Sabi Je Di<br />
*Je sabi Di.<br />
*Di sabi Je.<br />
<br />
All four mean "I don't know you". They are SOV, VSO, SVO, an OSV, the last being rare. The free movement here is partially due to the fact that Yardistani personal pronouns have both nominative and oblique forms, thus making the subject and object of a verb discernable.<br />
<br />
Yardistani is also a PRO-drop language, meaning that the language does not require all of its sentences to have overt subjects. However, Yardistani verbs do not conjugate for person, so it is common not to drop subjects unless it is clearly understood:<br />
<br />
*Je kere vejj, ye podi. ''I want to go, but (I) cannot.''<br />
<br />
A few verbs, like 'dajj' (which in its subjectless instances translates as 'there is/are'), do not take subjects at all.<br />
<br />
*'''Da''' trivi Majnsa nje Mrki. '''''There are''''' ''three people in the house''.<br />
<br />
<br />
There are many other differences between Yardistani and English:<br />
<br />
*Adjectives must '''always''' follow nouns.<br />
**Tâlrsa '''grandix''' ne veneši. - '''''Big''' changes are coming.''<br />
<br />
*Prepositions cannot be stranded. <br />
**¿'''Nja''' Kye daja De oyo? - ''Whom did you give this '''to'''?'' (lit. '''''To''' whom''...)<br />
<br />
*Yardistani has a tendency towards what is called verb-second word order. This basically means that when there are adverbs in sentences, the verb likes to let the adverbs precede it and to let the subject come afterwards.<br />
**¡Hrís '''sabe''' Je! - ''Now I '''know'''!''<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
Morphologically, Yardistani is fairly simple. Independent morphemes (or words, for the sake of this discussion) generally take suffixes when they undergo morphological processes, though there are a handful of prefixes as well. The place where morphology is most important is in the conjugation of verbs, but now declension is equally important. Below is an overview of the most important processes in the language.<br />
<br />
===Verb Conjugation===<br />
Verbs in Yardistani come in two classes, those ending in '-ajj' and those ending in '-ejj'. By and large, '-ajj' verbs are the more common. The conjugations of each of these verb types is normalized--there are no irregulars in the language.<br />
<br />
Yardistani verbs conjugate for tense and polarity (whether the sentence is affirmative or negative), and, in some cases, mood. Unlike many western languages, they do not conjugate for person or number. That means that for any given subject, be it 'John', 'We', or 'you', the verb form will be the same assuming the tense, the mood, and the polarity are not different.<br />
<br />
====Indicative====<br />
Below are charts for the most common indicative verb forms in Yardistani. Used in each example are the verbs 'habajj' ''to speak'' and 'sabejj' ''to know''.<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align:center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"<br />
! Conjugation<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Infinitive<br />
| habajj<br />
| habôjj*<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
| haba<br />
| habo<br />
|-<br />
! Preterite<br />
| habaja<br />
| habajo<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
| habaje<br />
| habaji<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align:center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"<br />
! Conjugation<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Infinitive<br />
| sabejj<br />
| sabîjj*<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
| sabe<br />
| sabi<br />
|-<br />
! Preterite<br />
| sabeja<br />
| sabejo<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
| sabeje<br />
| sabeji<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The negative infinitives are forms that only appear in the spoken language and are generally not found in writing. For instance, a person might say 'Je kere sabîjj' ''I don't want to know'' (or literally, ''I want to not know''), but in writing, it is considered more correct to write 'Je keri sabejj'.<br />
<br />
The indicative conjugations follow a regular pattern when it comes to polarity: those ending in 'a' or 'e' are positive, those ending in 'o' or 'i' are negative.<br />
<br />
There are other tenses as well. This includes the imperfect with the ending '-Vjja' for positive and '-Vjjo' for negative (where 'V' stands for either vowel 'a' or 'e'). Use of the tense is generally restricted to very formal speech and writing, and is usually replaced with the the preterite in informal registers. Even rarer is the habitual past (which is really a grammatical aspect and not a tense) indicated with '-Vša/o'. This only occurs in literary style and is quite archaic; for instance 'Le habaša kjan Mâtrlo kado Dihr' ''He spoke with his mother every day'' (implying he had done this for a long time and may still).<br />
<br />
Yardistani also has perfect variations of all of its tenses, formed with the verb 'tenejj' followed by the main verb in the past participle form; for instance, 'Le Ji tene habaj' ''She has spoken to me''.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Yardistani has two ways of expressing the imperative (that is, to give commands). The more formal way of doing so is with the particle 'kju' preceding the verb conjugated in the present indicative:<br />
<br />
*Kju habo kjan Ji. - ''Don't talk to me.''<br />
*Kju ayua Jôlosa. - ''Help your friends.''.<br />
<br />
The subject can sometimes be included to help differentiate between who is being commanded:<br />
<br />
*Kju De ve nja Tendr. - ''Go (you) to the store.''<br />
*Kju Jitesa ve nja Tendr. - ''Let's go to the store.''<br />
<br />
It's also not uncommon to use the imperative to express hopes or wishes about a subject who is not present, and to use it with stative verbs in certain contexts. For instance, a Yardistani speaker might say 'Kju Talr vene hrís' to mean ''I hope Talr comes now'' or ''May Talr come now'', though it might literally be translated as something like ''Come now, Talr''. Likewise, the imperative is sometimes used with verbs that can't normally be commanded; for instance, somebody might say to another 'Kju sabe Ângloto' (lit. ''Know English'') to indicate that they hope a person learns English successfully. These usages overlap in many ways with the subjunctive mood of other languages, but they are distinct in Yardistani. This is partially because the subjunctive is falling out of use and also because of certain syntactic limitations on the subjunctive itself (which will be discussed below).<br />
<br />
'Kju' is not the only particle that can be used to indicate the imperative--'plaat' can also be used. Considered to be much more formal and polite, it is generally translated as ''please''; for instance, 'Plaat ayua Jôlosa' ''Please help your friends.''<br />
<br />
There is a much less formal way of forming an imperative in Yardistani, and that is by simply using the verb root. For instance, 'habajj' becomes '¡Hab!. In single syllable verbs, like 'vejj' ''to go'', the vowel is preposed, such that we get '¡'''Ev''' De nja Tendr' ''Go to the store!''. Commands of this type are almost always written with exclamation marks. These commands are also considered to be less respectful and even rude when used in certain contexts, but they also convey a sense of urgency. They do not conjugate for polarity, so the particle 'ku' (sometimes 'kuu'), meaning 'no', is inserted after the verb; for instance '¡Hab ku kjan Le!' ''Don't talk to her!''<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive====<br />
The Yardistani subjunctive, like the imperfect and the habitual, is generally only seen in formal writing. It is used to indicate a state of affairs that is not or may not be the case. For instance:<br />
<br />
*Je kere kju Fjedr sabeju. - ''I don't want Fjedr to know''<br />
*Le'xpere kju habajr De kjan Talr. - ''She hopes that you speak with Talr''.<br />
<br />
Subjunctive conjugations are distinguishable by their endings--'aa' in place of 'a/e' for positives, and 'u' in place of 'o/i' for negatives. The forms are slightly different:<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align:center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! Conjugation<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
| -Vjr<br />
| -Vju<br />
|-<br />
! Past<br />
| -Vcjr<br />
| -Vcju<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The past subjunctive covers the preterite, imperfect, and habitual. There is no form for the future.<br />
<br />
===Noun Morphology===<br />
Nouns in Yardistani do not undergo a great number of processes. There is no gender and there are no case distinctions except in the personal pronouns, discussed below.<br />
<br />
====Nouns Derived from Verbs====<br />
Many nouns are derived directly from verbs, identifiable by their suffixes. For instance, compare these forms derived from the verb 'habajj' ''to speak'':<br />
<br />
* 'Habr' - speech in general, the concept of speaking<br />
** Linguîxtamajsa pensa kju Habr ne interesantix. ''Linguists think that speech is interesting.''<br />
* 'Habo' - Something spoken, a speech or address<br />
** Je sabe Hâbolo. ''I know what he said.'' (lit. ''I know his speech.'')<br />
* 'Hâbamaj' - A speaker, somebody who is/was speaking<br />
** Je gustaja Hâbamaj. ''I liked the speaker''<br />
<br />
====Plural and Possessive Suffixes====<br />
Yardistani marks plurals by attaching the suffix '-sa' to the ends of nouns:<br />
<br />
* Katr ''cat'' + -sa = Kâtrsa ''cats''<br />
<br />
Yardistani also uses suffixes to indicate possession. There is a suffix for each grammatical person:<br />
<br />
* First person uses the suffix '''-jo'''<br />
** Katr + -jo = Kâtrjo ''my/our cat''<br />
* Second person uses '''-do'''<br />
** Katr + -do = Kâtrdo ''your cat''<br />
* Third person uses '''-lo'''<br />
** Katr + -lo = Kâtrlo ''his/her/its/their cat''<br />
<br />
As you can see, there is no distinction in number in these suffixes and the meaning must be gleaned from context.<br />
<br />
The order of the plural and possessive suffixes is unimportant. This means that 'Kâtrsalo' is equivalent to 'Kâtrlosa'.<br />
<br />
Yardistani also has a genitive suffix '-na'. This suffix comes last, and functions much in the same way that '-'s' does in English:<br />
<br />
*Tâlrna libr - ''Talr's book''<br />
*Mâtrdona jojo - ''Your mother's friend.'' <br />
*Kâtrsalona Matr - ''His cats' mother''<br />
<br />
It is also very common to use the preposition 'du' to form these same phrases; for instance 'Matr du Kâtrsalo' means ''the mother of his cats''.<br />
<br />
====Personal Pronouns====<br />
Yardistani distinguishes four persons: first, dual, second, and third. Their forms are below:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"<br />
!rowspan="2" |Person<br />
!colspan="2" |Singular<br />
!colspan="2" |Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Oblique<br />
! Nominative<br />
! Oblique<br />
|-<br />
! 1st<br />
| Je<br />
| Ji<br />
| Jesa<br />
| Jisa<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| style="background:#999999;" | &nbsp;<br />
| Jitesa<br />
| style="background:#999999;" | &nbsp;<br />
| Jitesa<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd<br />
| De<br />
| Di<br />
| Desa<br />
| Disa<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd<br />
| Le<br />
| Li<br />
| Lesa<br />
| Lisa<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The dual person is used when talking about oneself (or the group the speaker belongs to) and the person or people the speaker is speaking to. Thus, it is inherently plural and has no singular forms.<br />
<br />
The nominative forms are used in subject positions of sentences. The oblique is used as the object of verbs or prepositions.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives and Adverbs===<br />
All adjectives in Yardistani end in '-ix'; for instance 'yahix' ''cold'' or 'nalix' ''white''. There is no agreement between the adjective and the nouns they modify, so the form is always the same. Thus there is no difference in the adjectives 'libr nehix' for ''new book' and 'lîbrsa nehix' for ''new books''.<br />
<br />
Adverbs end in '-ís' and generally have the same roots as Adjectives. Thus 'nehís' means ''newly'' where 'nehix' means 'new'. <br />
<br />
==Yardistani and its Relation to Other Languages==<br />
Yardistani is a language comprised heavily of loan words. As such, its relation to other languages is very important to its understanding. The language's relationship to Spanish, for instance, is comparable to English's relationship to French. English has its distinct syntax and grammar, its own pronunciation, and its own core vocabulary, but almost inexplicable amounts of the language are loaned from French and other Romantic sources. Yardistani is much the same as English in this example: it has a number of core vocabulary and its own grammar, but the language is primarily based on Spanish words.<br />
<br />
Yardistani shares some vocalbulary with [[Rantsilastani]], evidentaly from a common ancestor. This relationship is most evident in a number of verbs, but exists in many lexical categories: <br />
{|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"<br />
! Yardistani<br />
! Rantsilastani<br />
! Gloss<br />
|-<br />
| nejj<br />
| nej<br />
| to be<br />
|-<br />
| dajj<br />
| dej<br />
| to be (locative)<br />
|-<br />
| talajj<br />
| talej<br />
| to change ''(also'' to move ''in Rant.)''<br />
|-<br />
| Mrki<br />
| merko<br />
| Y: House; R: hut, shelter<br />
|-<br />
| -na<br />
| -na<br />
| ''genitive suffix''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Useful Phrases in Yardistani==<br />
<br />
*Hi! - ''¡Allo!'' or ''¡Don!<br />
*Hello - ''Donsu''<br />
*Goodbye - ''Donku''<br />
*My name is... - ''Nâmrjo ne...''<br />
*Where is...? - ''Xo da ...?''<br />
*I want to go to Novi Nigrad - ''Je kere vejj nja Nigrad Nehix''<br />
*I hope everybody is well and that the bomb are not killing you quickly. - ''J'espere kju Tôdrsa nejr bonís, ce kju Bômbrsa Disa mataju rapís''<br />
<br />
''See Also:'' [[Del-al'Enetet]], [[Radarasilikan]]<br />
[[Category:Fiction]] [[category:Yardistan]] [[category: Conlangs]] [[Category: Languages]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Rantsilastani_language&diff=10417Rantsilastani language2010-12-28T04:37:24Z<p>Tau: Pronunciation</p>
<hr />
<div>{{YAC}}<br />
<br />
{{infobox language<br />
| name= Rantsilastani<br />
| nativename= ''Rantsilastani''<br />
| pronunciation= [{{IPA|ˈrɑntsilɑstɑni|}}]<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= Southeastern [[Yardistan]]<br />
| speakers= Unknown<br />
| familycolor= gold<br />
| fam1= Iardic<br />
| fam2= Insular<br />
| fam3= Outer<br />
| script= Latin (Rantsilastani variant)<br />
| nation= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= rsl<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[image:Rantsilastan.png|thumb|right|Rantsilastan is a territory in the south east of the Isle of Yardistan]]<br />
<br />
'''Rantsilastani''' is the language spoken by the people of [[Rantsilastan]].<br />
<br />
It is a [[Constructed language | conlang]] created by [[Gryphon Avocatio]]. It is related to [[Yardistani language | Yardistani]], Finnish, and Swedish. Syntactically, Rantsilastani is a right-headed language. Generally, sentences are in the Subject Object Verb order, but as the language is heavily declined these elements can be mixed up in most imaginable orders.<br />
<br />
The language has undergone a number of changes since it was first conceived, especially after Gryphon left micronations and learned more about actual linguistics. In its earliest forms, it looked like this:<br />
<br />
*Arikmetzlerÿ forstäkaisero në. Skoþalexanderÿ stroäkaisero naë. Vÿ ensäkaisero najë, tÿ kuveya në.<br />
*''Erik Metzler was the first Kaiser. Scott Alexander is the current Kaiser. It is unknown who will be the next Kaiser.''<br />
<br />
Nowadays, the same sentence would be rendered like this:<br />
<br />
*Ariky Metzlery forsta kaisero në. Skoþy Aleksandery nuana kaisero naë. Vy ta nesta kaisero najë kuvejja në.<br />
*Erik.NOM Metzler.NOM first kaiser.ACC be.PST. Scott.NOM Alexander.NOM now.GEN kaiser.ACC be.PRES. Who COMP next kaiser.ACC be.FUT unknown be.PRES.<br />
<br />
Compare this to the same sentence in Yardistani:<br />
<br />
*Aarik Metzler neja Kaiser primix. Xkos Alexandro ne Kaiser hrix. Ne kusabejix kje neje Kaiser proxix.<br />
*Erik Metzler be.PST kaiser first. Scott Alexander be.PRES kaiser current. be.PRES unknown who be.FUT kaiser next.<br />
<br />
The language is still very underdeveloped, lacking heavily in vocabulary (most of which has been loaned from Scandinavian, as well as Old English and Finnish) as well as useful declensions.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Noun Declension ==<br />
Nouns in Rantislastani are fully declined; that is to say, the words change form depending upon their syntactic position in a sentence, generally by taking a suffix. Taking a word like 'boko' ''book'', we get various different forms:<br />
<br />
*Nominative: boky (i.e. the subject of a sentence)<br />
*Accusative: boko (i.e. the direct object)<br />
*Dative: boktil (i.e. the indirect object, as well as a destination)<br />
*Genitive: bokna (i.e. like the possessive ''-'s'' suffix in English)<br />
*Locative: boki<br />
*Ablative: bokaf<br />
<br />
There are more case endings than this--these are meant only to serve as examples. The citation forms of nouns in Rantsilastani (that is, the dictionary form) is the accusative form.<br />
<br />
== Vowel Harmony ==<br />
Rantsilastani exhibits a form of vowel harmony not dissimilar to that of Finnish, though it is somewhat similar. The basic rules are as follows:<br />
<br />
*A vowel (excluding /a/ and /i/) has the same value for [round] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
*A vowel has the same value for [front] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
<br />
The consequence of this is that words will change pronunciation based upon what suffix they might have. Take for example the words below:<br />
<br />
*Fronting: boko = ['bo.ko] -> boky = ['bø.ky]<br />
*Rounding: kato = ['kɑ.to] -> katy = ['ka.ty]<br />
<br />
Due to the vowel distribution of Rantsilastani, both rounding and fronting cannot affect the same vowel. However, the process can create homophones with words containing /y/, /e/ and /o/. For instance, the words 'huso' and 'hyso' are pronounced differently, but in their Locative forms they are pronounced the same way--'husi' and 'hysi' are both ['hy.si]. Likewise /o/ can is fronted to [ø], and /e/ is rounded to [ø]. <br />
<br />
It should be noted that the vowel phoneme /a/ effectively blocks roundness harmony, but /i/ is transparent. That means that if there are rounded vowels after /i/, vowels coming before /i/ will be rounded too.<br />
<br />
Though this all seems complex, the changes that occur are systematic and easily remembered.<br />
<br />
[[category:fiction]]<br />
[[category:culture]]<br />
[[category:Yardistan]]<br />
[[category: Conlangs]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Rantsilastani_language&diff=10416Rantsilastani language2010-12-28T04:32:18Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{YAC}}<br />
<br />
{{infobox language<br />
| name= Rantsilastani<br />
| nativename= ''Rantsilastani''<br />
| pronunciation=<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= Southeastern [[Yardistan]]<br />
| speakers= Unknown<br />
| familycolor= gold<br />
| fam1= Iardic<br />
| fam2= Insular<br />
| fam3= Outer<br />
| script= Latin (Rantsilastani variant)<br />
| nation= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= rsl<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[image:Rantsilastan.png|thumb|right|Rantsilastan is a territory in the south east of the Isle of Yardistan]]<br />
<br />
'''Rantsilastani''' is the language spoken by the people of [[Rantsilastan]].<br />
<br />
It is a [[Constructed language | conlang]] created by [[Gryphon Avocatio]]. It is related to [[Yardistani language | Yardistani]], Finnish, and Swedish. Syntactically, Rantsilastani is a right-headed language. Generally, sentences are in the Subject Object Verb order, but as the language is heavily declined these elements can be mixed up in most imaginable orders.<br />
<br />
The language has undergone a number of changes since it was first conceived, especially after Gryphon left micronations and learned more about actual linguistics. In its earliest forms, it looked like this:<br />
<br />
*Arikmetzlerÿ forstäkaisero në. Skoþalexanderÿ stroäkaisero naë. Vÿ ensäkaisero najë, tÿ kuveya në.<br />
*''Erik Metzler was the first Kaiser. Scott Alexander is the current Kaiser. It is unknown who will be the next Kaiser.''<br />
<br />
Nowadays, the same sentence would be rendered like this:<br />
<br />
*Ariky Metzlery forsta kaisero në. Skoþy Aleksandery nuana kaisero naë. Vy ta nesta kaisero najë kuvejja në.<br />
*Erik.NOM Metzler.NOM first kaiser.ACC be.PST. Scott.NOM Alexander.NOM now.GEN kaiser.ACC be.PRES. Who COMP next kaiser.ACC be.FUT unknown be.PRES.<br />
<br />
Compare this to the same sentence in Yardistani:<br />
<br />
*Aarik Metzler neja Kaiser primix. Xkos Alexandro ne Kaiser hrix. Ne kusabejix kje neje Kaiser proxix.<br />
*Erik Metzler be.PST kaiser first. Scott Alexander be.PRES kaiser current. be.PRES unknown who be.FUT kaiser next.<br />
<br />
The language is still very underdeveloped, lacking heavily in vocabulary (most of which has been loaned from Scandinavian, as well as Old English and Finnish) as well as useful declensions.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Noun Declension ==<br />
Nouns in Rantislastani are fully declined; that is to say, the words change form depending upon their syntactic position in a sentence, generally by taking a suffix. Taking a word like 'boko' ''book'', we get various different forms:<br />
<br />
*Nominative: boky (i.e. the subject of a sentence)<br />
*Accusative: boko (i.e. the direct object)<br />
*Dative: boktil (i.e. the indirect object, as well as a destination)<br />
*Genitive: bokna (i.e. like the possessive ''-'s'' suffix in English)<br />
*Locative: boki<br />
*Ablative: bokaf<br />
<br />
There are more case endings than this--these are meant only to serve as examples. The citation forms of nouns in Rantsilastani (that is, the dictionary form) is the accusative form.<br />
<br />
== Vowel Harmony ==<br />
Rantsilastani exhibits a form of vowel harmony not dissimilar to that of Finnish, though it is somewhat similar. The basic rules are as follows:<br />
<br />
*A vowel (excluding /a/ and /i/) has the same value for [round] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
*A vowel has the same value for [front] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
<br />
The consequence of this is that words will change pronunciation based upon what suffix they might have. Take for example the words below:<br />
<br />
*Fronting: boko = ['bo.ko] -> boky = ['bø.ky]<br />
*Rounding: kato = ['kɑ.to] -> katy = ['ka.ty]<br />
<br />
Due to the vowel distribution of Rantsilastani, both rounding and fronting cannot affect the same vowel. However, the process can create homophones with words containing /y/, /e/ and /o/. For instance, the words 'huso' and 'hyso' are pronounced differently, but in their Locative forms they are pronounced the same way--'husi' and 'hysi' are both ['hy.si]. Likewise /o/ can is fronted to [ø], and /e/ is rounded to [ø]. <br />
<br />
It should be noted that the vowel phoneme /a/ effectively blocks roundness harmony, but /i/ is transparent. That means that if there are rounded vowels after /i/, vowels coming before /i/ will be rounded too.<br />
<br />
Though this all seems complex, the changes that occur are systematic and easily remembered.<br />
<br />
[[category:fiction]]<br />
[[category:culture]]<br />
[[category:Yardistan]]<br />
[[category: Conlangs]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Rantsilastani&diff=10415Rantsilastani2010-12-28T04:31:39Z<p>Tau: moved Rantsilastani to Rantsilastani language</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[Rantsilastani language]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Rantsilastani_language&diff=10414Rantsilastani language2010-12-28T04:31:39Z<p>Tau: moved Rantsilastani to Rantsilastani language</p>
<hr />
<div>{{YAC}}<br />
<br />
{{infobox language<br />
| name= Rantsilastani<br />
| nativename= ''Rantsilastani''<br />
| pronunciation=<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= Southeastern [[Yardistan]]<br />
| speakers= Unknown<br />
| familycolor= gold<br />
| fam1= Iardic<br />
| fam2= Insular<br />
| fam3= Outer<br />
| script= Latin (Rantsilastani variant)<br />
| nation= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= rsl<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[image:Rantsilastan.png|thumb|right|Rantsilastan is a territory in the south east of the Isle of Yardistan]]<br />
<br />
'''Rantsilastani''' is the language spoken by the people of [[Rantsilastan]].<br />
<br />
It is a [[Constructed language | conlang]] created by [[Gryphon Avocatio]]. It is related to [[Yardistani]], Finnish, and Swedish. Syntactically, Rantsilastani is a right-headed language. Generally, sentences are in the Subject Object Verb order, but as the language is heavily declined these elements can be mixed up in most imaginable orders.<br />
<br />
The language has undergone a number of changes since it was first conceived, especially after Gryphon left micronations and learned more about actual linguistics. In its earliest forms, it looked like this:<br />
<br />
*Arikmetzlerÿ forstäkaisero në. Skoþalexanderÿ stroäkaisero naë. Vÿ ensäkaisero najë, tÿ kuveya në.<br />
*''Erik Metzler was the first Kaiser. Scott Alexander is the current Kaiser. It is unknown who will be the next Kaiser.''<br />
<br />
Nowadays, the same sentence would be rendered like this:<br />
<br />
*Ariky Metzlery forsta kaisero në. Skoþy Aleksandery nuana kaisero naë. Vy ta nesta kaisero najë kuvejja në.<br />
*Erik.NOM Metzler.NOM first kaiser.ACC be.PST. Scott.NOM Alexander.NOM now.GEN kaiser.ACC be.PRES. Who COMP next kaiser.ACC be.FUT unknown be.PRES.<br />
<br />
Compare this to the same sentence in Yardistani:<br />
<br />
*Aarik Metzler neja Kaiser primix. Xkos Alexandro ne Kaiser hrix. Ne kusabejix kje neje Kaiser proxix.<br />
*Erik Metzler be.PST kaiser first. Scott Alexander be.PRES kaiser current. be.PRES unknown who be.FUT kaiser next.<br />
<br />
The language is still very underdeveloped, lacking heavily in vocabulary (most of which has been loaned from Scandinavian, as well as Old English and Finnish) as well as useful declensions.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Noun Declension ==<br />
Nouns in Rantislastani are fully declined; that is to say, the words change form depending upon their syntactic position in a sentence, generally by taking a suffix. Taking a word like 'boko' ''book'', we get various different forms:<br />
<br />
*Nominative: boky (i.e. the subject of a sentence)<br />
*Accusative: boko (i.e. the direct object)<br />
*Dative: boktil (i.e. the indirect object, as well as a destination)<br />
*Genitive: bokna (i.e. like the possessive ''-'s'' suffix in English)<br />
*Locative: boki<br />
*Ablative: bokaf<br />
<br />
There are more case endings than this--these are meant only to serve as examples. The citation forms of nouns in Rantsilastani (that is, the dictionary form) is the accusative form.<br />
<br />
== Vowel Harmony ==<br />
Rantsilastani exhibits a form of vowel harmony not dissimilar to that of Finnish, though it is somewhat similar. The basic rules are as follows:<br />
<br />
*A vowel (excluding /a/ and /i/) has the same value for [round] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
*A vowel has the same value for [front] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
<br />
The consequence of this is that words will change pronunciation based upon what suffix they might have. Take for example the words below:<br />
<br />
*Fronting: boko = ['bo.ko] -> boky = ['bø.ky]<br />
*Rounding: kato = ['kɑ.to] -> katy = ['ka.ty]<br />
<br />
Due to the vowel distribution of Rantsilastani, both rounding and fronting cannot affect the same vowel. However, the process can create homophones with words containing /y/, /e/ and /o/. For instance, the words 'huso' and 'hyso' are pronounced differently, but in their Locative forms they are pronounced the same way--'husi' and 'hysi' are both ['hy.si]. Likewise /o/ can is fronted to [ø], and /e/ is rounded to [ø]. <br />
<br />
It should be noted that the vowel phoneme /a/ effectively blocks roundness harmony, but /i/ is transparent. That means that if there are rounded vowels after /i/, vowels coming before /i/ will be rounded too.<br />
<br />
Though this all seems complex, the changes that occur are systematic and easily remembered.<br />
<br />
[[category:fiction]]<br />
[[category:culture]]<br />
[[category:Yardistan]]<br />
[[category: Conlangs]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Rantsilastani_language&diff=10413Rantsilastani language2010-12-28T04:31:22Z<p>Tau: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{YAC}}<br />
<br />
{{infobox language<br />
| name= Rantsilastani<br />
| nativename= ''Rantsilastani''<br />
| pronunciation=<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= Southeastern [[Yardistan]]<br />
| speakers= Unknown<br />
| familycolor= gold<br />
| fam1= Iardic<br />
| fam2= Insular<br />
| fam3= Outer<br />
| script= Latin (Rantsilastani variant)<br />
| nation= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= rsl<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[image:Rantsilastan.png|thumb|right|Rantsilastan is a territory in the south east of the Isle of Yardistan]]<br />
<br />
'''Rantsilastani''' is the language spoken by the people of [[Rantsilastan]].<br />
<br />
It is a [[Constructed language | conlang]] created by [[Gryphon Avocatio]]. It is related to [[Yardistani]], Finnish, and Swedish. Syntactically, Rantsilastani is a right-headed language. Generally, sentences are in the Subject Object Verb order, but as the language is heavily declined these elements can be mixed up in most imaginable orders.<br />
<br />
The language has undergone a number of changes since it was first conceived, especially after Gryphon left micronations and learned more about actual linguistics. In its earliest forms, it looked like this:<br />
<br />
*Arikmetzlerÿ forstäkaisero në. Skoþalexanderÿ stroäkaisero naë. Vÿ ensäkaisero najë, tÿ kuveya në.<br />
*''Erik Metzler was the first Kaiser. Scott Alexander is the current Kaiser. It is unknown who will be the next Kaiser.''<br />
<br />
Nowadays, the same sentence would be rendered like this:<br />
<br />
*Ariky Metzlery forsta kaisero në. Skoþy Aleksandery nuana kaisero naë. Vy ta nesta kaisero najë kuvejja në.<br />
*Erik.NOM Metzler.NOM first kaiser.ACC be.PST. Scott.NOM Alexander.NOM now.GEN kaiser.ACC be.PRES. Who COMP next kaiser.ACC be.FUT unknown be.PRES.<br />
<br />
Compare this to the same sentence in Yardistani:<br />
<br />
*Aarik Metzler neja Kaiser primix. Xkos Alexandro ne Kaiser hrix. Ne kusabejix kje neje Kaiser proxix.<br />
*Erik Metzler be.PST kaiser first. Scott Alexander be.PRES kaiser current. be.PRES unknown who be.FUT kaiser next.<br />
<br />
The language is still very underdeveloped, lacking heavily in vocabulary (most of which has been loaned from Scandinavian, as well as Old English and Finnish) as well as useful declensions.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Noun Declension ==<br />
Nouns in Rantislastani are fully declined; that is to say, the words change form depending upon their syntactic position in a sentence, generally by taking a suffix. Taking a word like 'boko' ''book'', we get various different forms:<br />
<br />
*Nominative: boky (i.e. the subject of a sentence)<br />
*Accusative: boko (i.e. the direct object)<br />
*Dative: boktil (i.e. the indirect object, as well as a destination)<br />
*Genitive: bokna (i.e. like the possessive ''-'s'' suffix in English)<br />
*Locative: boki<br />
*Ablative: bokaf<br />
<br />
There are more case endings than this--these are meant only to serve as examples. The citation forms of nouns in Rantsilastani (that is, the dictionary form) is the accusative form.<br />
<br />
== Vowel Harmony ==<br />
Rantsilastani exhibits a form of vowel harmony not dissimilar to that of Finnish, though it is somewhat similar. The basic rules are as follows:<br />
<br />
*A vowel (excluding /a/ and /i/) has the same value for [round] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
*A vowel has the same value for [front] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
<br />
The consequence of this is that words will change pronunciation based upon what suffix they might have. Take for example the words below:<br />
<br />
*Fronting: boko = ['bo.ko] -> boky = ['bø.ky]<br />
*Rounding: kato = ['kɑ.to] -> katy = ['ka.ty]<br />
<br />
Due to the vowel distribution of Rantsilastani, both rounding and fronting cannot affect the same vowel. However, the process can create homophones with words containing /y/, /e/ and /o/. For instance, the words 'huso' and 'hyso' are pronounced differently, but in their Locative forms they are pronounced the same way--'husi' and 'hysi' are both ['hy.si]. Likewise /o/ can is fronted to [ø], and /e/ is rounded to [ø]. <br />
<br />
It should be noted that the vowel phoneme /a/ effectively blocks roundness harmony, but /i/ is transparent. That means that if there are rounded vowels after /i/, vowels coming before /i/ will be rounded too.<br />
<br />
Though this all seems complex, the changes that occur are systematic and easily remembered.<br />
<br />
[[category:fiction]]<br />
[[category:culture]]<br />
[[category:Yardistan]]<br />
[[category: Conlangs]]</div>Tauhttps://shireroth.org/wiki/index.php?title=Rantsilastani_language&diff=10412Rantsilastani language2010-12-28T04:30:25Z<p>Tau: Infobox</p>
<hr />
<div>{{YAC}}<br />
<br />
{{infobox language<br />
| name= Rantsilastani<br />
| nativename= ''Rantsilastani''<br />
| pronunciation=<br />
| states= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| region= Southeastern [[Yardistan]]<br />
| speakers= Unknown<br />
| familycolor= gold<br />
| fam1= Iardic<br />
| fam2= Insular<br />
| fam3= Outer<br />
| script= Latin (Rantsilastani variant)<br />
| nation= [[Shireroth]]<br />
| agency= None<br />
| mic1= rsl<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{language<br />
|name=Rantsilastani<br />
|nativename= ''Rantsilastani''<br />
|familycolor=purple<br />
|nations=[[Shireroth]]<br />
|region= South-eastern [[Yardistan]]<br />
|speakers=unknown<br />
|family= Iardic Languages<br />
|nation=[[Shireroth]]<br />
|agency= none }}<br />
[[image:Rantsilastan.png|thumb|right|Rantsilastan is a territory in the south east of the Isle of Yardistan]]<br />
'''Rantsilastani''' is the language spoken by the people of [[Rantsilastan]].<br />
<br />
It is a [[Conlang]] created by [[Gryphon Avocatio]]. It is related to [[Yardistani]], Finnish, and Swedish. Syntactically, Rantsilastani is a right-headed language. Generally, sentences are in the Subject Object Verb order, but as the language is heavily declined these elements can be mixed up in most imaginable orders.<br />
<br />
The language has undergone a number of changes since it was first conceived, especially after Gryphon left micronations and learned more about actual linguistics. In its earliest forms, it looked like this:<br />
<br />
*Arikmetzlerÿ forstäkaisero në. Skoþalexanderÿ stroäkaisero naë. Vÿ ensäkaisero najë, tÿ kuveya në.<br />
*''Erik Metzler was the first Kaiser. Scott Alexander is the current Kaiser. It is unknown who will be the next Kaiser.''<br />
<br />
Nowadays, the same sentence would be rendered like this:<br />
<br />
*Ariky Metzlery forsta kaisero në. Skoþy Aleksandery nuana kaisero naë. Vy ta nesta kaisero najë kuvejja në.<br />
*Erik.NOM Metzler.NOM first kaiser.ACC be.PST. Scott.NOM Alexander.NOM now.GEN kaiser.ACC be.PRES. Who COMP next kaiser.ACC be.FUT unknown be.PRES.<br />
<br />
Compare this to the same sentence in Yardistani:<br />
<br />
*Aarik Metzler neja Kaiser primix. Xkos Alexandro ne Kaiser hrix. Ne kusabejix kje neje Kaiser proxix.<br />
*Erik Metzler be.PST kaiser first. Scott Alexander be.PRES kaiser current. be.PRES unknown who be.FUT kaiser next.<br />
<br />
The language is still very underdeveloped, lacking heavily in vocabulary (most of which has been loaned from Scandinavian, as well as Old English and Finnish) as well as useful declensions.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Noun Declension ==<br />
Nouns in Rantislastani are fully declined; that is to say, the words change form depending upon their syntactic position in a sentence, generally by taking a suffix. Taking a word like 'boko' ''book'', we get various different forms:<br />
<br />
*Nominative: boky (i.e. the subject of a sentence)<br />
*Accusative: boko (i.e. the direct object)<br />
*Dative: boktil (i.e. the indirect object, as well as a destination)<br />
*Genitive: bokna (i.e. like the possessive ''-'s'' suffix in English)<br />
*Locative: boki<br />
*Ablative: bokaf<br />
<br />
There are more case endings than this--these are meant only to serve as examples. The citation forms of nouns in Rantsilastani (that is, the dictionary form) is the accusative form.<br />
<br />
== Vowel Harmony ==<br />
Rantsilastani exhibits a form of vowel harmony not dissimilar to that of Finnish, though it is somewhat similar. The basic rules are as follows:<br />
<br />
*A vowel (excluding /a/ and /i/) has the same value for [round] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
*A vowel has the same value for [front] as the vowel that proceeds it.<br />
<br />
The consequence of this is that words will change pronunciation based upon what suffix they might have. Take for example the words below:<br />
<br />
*Fronting: boko = ['bo.ko] -> boky = ['bø.ky]<br />
*Rounding: kato = ['kɑ.to] -> katy = ['ka.ty]<br />
<br />
Due to the vowel distribution of Rantsilastani, both rounding and fronting cannot affect the same vowel. However, the process can create homophones with words containing /y/, /e/ and /o/. For instance, the words 'huso' and 'hyso' are pronounced differently, but in their Locative forms they are pronounced the same way--'husi' and 'hysi' are both ['hy.si]. Likewise /o/ can is fronted to [ø], and /e/ is rounded to [ø]. <br />
<br />
It should be noted that the vowel phoneme /a/ effectively blocks roundness harmony, but /i/ is transparent. That means that if there are rounded vowels after /i/, vowels coming before /i/ will be rounded too.<br />
<br />
Though this all seems complex, the changes that occur are systematic and easily remembered.<br />
<br />
[[category:fiction]]<br />
[[category:culture]]<br />
[[category:Yardistan]]<br />
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